Using individual differences approaches, a growing body of literature finds positive associations between musicality and language-related abilities, complementing prior findings of links between musical training and language skills. Despite these associations, musicality has been often overlooked in mainstream models of individual differences in language acquisition and development. To better understand the biological basis of these individual differences, we propose the Musical Abilities, Pleiotropy, Language, and Environment (MAPLE) framework. This novel integrative framework posits that musical and language-related abilities likely share some common genetic architecture (i.e., genetic pleiotropy) in addition to some degree of overlapping neural endophenotypes, and genetic influences on musically and linguistically enriched environments. Drawing upon recent advances in genomic methodologies for unraveling pleiotropy, we outline testable predictions for future research on language development and how its underlying neurobiological substrates may be supported by genetic pleiotropy with musicality. In support of the MAPLE framework, we review and discuss findings from over seventy behavioral and neural studies, highlighting that musicality is robustly associated with individual differences in a range of speech-language skills required for communication and development. These include speech perception-in-noise, prosodic perception, morphosyntactic skills, phonological skills, reading skills, and aspects of second/foreign language learning. Overall, the current work provides a clear agenda and framework for studying musicality-language links using individual differences approaches, with an emphasis on leveraging advances in the genomics of complex musicality and language traits.

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Study Objectives Evaluate serum and brain non-iron metals in the pathology and genetics of restless legs syndrome (RLS). Methods In two independent studies (Cohorts 1 and 2), in which subjects either remained on medications or tapered off medications, we analyzed serum levels of iron, calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper and zinc both in RLS patients and controls, and assessed the prevalence of the MEIS1 and BTBD9 risk alleles previously established through genome wide association studies. Human brain sections and a nematode genetic model were also quantified for metal levels using mass spectrometry. Results We found a significant enrichment for the BTBD9 risk genotype in the RLS affected group compared to control (p=0.0252), consistent with previous literature. Serum (p=0.0458 and p=0.0139 for Study Cohort 1 and 2, respectively) and brain (p=0.0413) zinc levels were significantly elevated in the RLS patients versus control subjects. Conclusion We show for the first time that serum and brain levels of zinc are elevated in RLS. Further, we confirm the BTBD9 genetic risk factor in a new population, although the zinc changes were not significantly associated with risk genotypes. Zinc and iron homeostasis are interrelated, and zinc biology impacts neurotransmitter systems previously linked to RLS. Given the modest albeit statistically significant increase in serum zinc of ~20%, and the lack of association with two known genetic risk factors, zinc may not represent a primary etiology for the syndrome. Further investigation into the pathogenetic role that zinc may play in restless legs syndrome is needed.