In species of great conservation concern, special attention must be paid to their phylogeography, in particular the origin of animals for captive breeding and reintroduction. The endangered European mink lives now in at least three well-separated populations in northeast, southeast and west Europe. Our aim is to assess the genetic structure of these populations to identify 'distinct population segments' (DPS) and advise captive breeding programmes. First, the mtDNA control region was completely sequenced in 176 minks and 10 polecats. The analysis revealed that the western population is characterized by a single mtDNA haplotype that is closely related to those in eastern regions but nevertheless, not found there to date. The northeast European animals are much more variable (pi = 0.012, h = 0.939), with the southeast samples intermediate (pi = 0.0012, h = 0.469). Second, 155 European mink were genotyped using six microsatellites. The latter display the same trends of genetic diversity among regions as mtDNA [gene diversity and allelic richness highest in northeast Europe (H(E) = 0.539, R(S) = 3.76), lowest in west Europe (H(E) = 0.379, R(S) = 2.12)], and provide evidences that the southeast and possibly the west populations have undergone a recent bottleneck. Our results indicate that the western population derives from a few animals which recently colonized this region, possibly after a human introduction. Microsatellite data also reveal that isolation by distance occurs in the western population, causing some inbreeding because related individuals mate. As genetic data indicate that the three populations have not undergone independent evolutionary histories for long (no phylogeographical structure), they should not be considered as distinct DPS. In conclusion, the captive breeding programme should use animals from different parts of the species' present distribution area.

Summary 0[ The Marais Poitevin\ one of the principal wintering and passage sites for ducks and waders in the East Atlantic~yway\ underwent agricultural intensi_cation in the 0879s[ The numbers of ducks declined in the period 0868Ð85 in the main roost\ Baie de l|Aiguillon^this was a site!speci_c phenomenon for which local factors were responsible[ We describe here long!term changes in some key characteristics of the wetlands\ paying particular attention to the principal factors a}ecting the quality of waterbird habitat] the area of semi!natural grasslands\ water management and wildfowling[ 1[ The area of grasslands declined by 49) between 0869 and 0884\ principally as a result of conversion to arable farmland[ The pattern was observed over the whole area and was slightly more marked close to the day!roost of the ducks[ The rate of change was greatest in the 0879s[ Water levels\ and therefore the~ooded area\ were reduced over the study period during the months of May to November[ The numbers of wildfowlers declined from the 0869s\ but the number of arti_cial wildfowling ponds increased\ especially after 0879[ The number of birds killed did not decline and may have increased[ The quality of the ducks| habitat therefore declined by all three measures[ 2[ Four species\ mallard\ shoveler\ teal and gadwall\ showed an increase in other sites in north and west France either over the whole period or over the last part "0873Ð85#\ while declining "shoveler and mallard# or remaining stable in the Baie de l|Aiguillon[ Pintail remained stable in the other sites\ while showing a long!term decline "over 29 years# in the Baie[ Wigeon did not use the Baie in large numbers in the 0885 cold spell as they did until the 0879s[ 3[ The uncoupling of the trends for these species in the Baie from their trends in the other sites may re~ect the loss of grassland feeding habitat in the Marais Poitevin[ However\ for mallard\ pintail and shoveler the declines in the Baie were much stronger than the 49) loss of grasslands so other factors\ such as the reduction in autumñ ooding and:or shooting\ are likely to have played a part[ 4[ Since the three measures of long!term trends in duck habitat co!varied it was not possible to separate their e}ects statistically[ The hypotheses arising from this study need to be tested] this should be done using comparative and experimental approaches[ Suggestions are made for the management of water levels and shooting in the feeding habitat close to the Baie de l|Aiguillon[

Because of the rapid decline of the endangered European mink (Mustela lutreola) populations in France, a national conservation program has been put into action, including research to understand the causes of decline. As part of this research, concentrations of eight anticoagulant rodenticides were examined in livers from 122 carcasses of four species of freeranging mustelids collected between 1990 and 2002 in southwestern France. Bromadiolone residue was found in all species and 9% of the sample (one of 31 European mink, three of 47 American mink [Mustela vison], five of 33 polecats [Mustela putorius], and two of 11 European otters [Lutra lutra]). Liver concentrations ranged from 0.6 g/g to 9.0 g/g. Chlorophacinone residue was found in two species and 4% of the sample (in four of the American mink and in one of the otters), with liver concentrations ranging from 3.4 g/g to 8.5 g/g. Two polecats and one American mink had lesions and liver residues indicating bromadiolone was directly responsible for their death. However, most of our study animals survived secondary poisoning until they were caught; this study certainly underestimates the extent of fatal exposure of mustelids to rodenticides. Moreover, anticoagulant poisoning could increase their vulnerability to other causes of death. The current status of the endangered European mink population is such that any additional risk factor for mortality is important, and it is thus urgent to monitor and reduce the extensive use of bromadiolone and chlorophacinone against field rodents in France.

The European mink (Mustela lutreola) is one of the most threatened carnivores in Europe, with fragmented populations in Belarus, Russia and Romania, as well in south-western France and northern Spain. Many populations have become extinct recently, or are declining. We investigated mitochondrial DNA variation, using the complete D-loop region, and concentrating on the west European population. The aim was two-fold: to use the genetic information to advise on the conservation of European mink, and to begin to understand their history through the Pleistocene. Captive breeding and re-introduction programmes are underway, so it is particularly vital to know whether the West European population should be treated separately. We find that European mink probably colonised from a single refugium after the last glaciation. West European populations may be fixed for a single haplotype, also suggesting a common origin. Despite this evidence for gene flow, following the precautionary principle we suggest that mink from the three geographically separate populations (Romania, Eastern and Western Europe) should be managed separately, for the moment. #

The helminth fauna in 109 Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra L.) from France, Portugal and Spain was analysed, together with 56 faecal samples collected in Portugal and 23 fresh stools from otters included in a reintroduction programme. Seven helminth species were found in L. lutra in southwest Europe: Phagicola sp. (Trematoda), Aonchotheca putorii, Eucoleus schvalovoj, Strongyloides lutrae, Anisakis (third stage larvae) and Dirofilaria immitis (Nematoda), and Gigantorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala). Eucoleus schvalovoj was the dominant species throughout southwest Europe. Strongyloides lutrae was significantly more prevalent in the Iberian Peninsula than in France. Apart from these two dominant nematodes and A. putorii, the other helminth species were incidental parasites of L. lutra in southwest Europe. The helminth fauna of L. lutra in southwest Europe is, in general, poorer than that reported in eastern Europe and in all other aquatic mustelids in southwest Europe. Phagicola specimens are reported for the first time in a non-marine wild carnivore in Europe. The prevalences of E. schvalovoj and S. lutrae obtained by necropsy were higher than those observed by coprological analysis using a formalin-ether concentration method (Ritchie). Nevertheless, the culture of fresh faeces appears to be the best method to study infection of L. lutra by Strongyloides.