CD40, a costimulatory molecule expressed on macrophages, induces expression of interleukin 12 (IL-12) in uninfected macrophages and IL-10 in macrophages infected with Leishmania major. IL-12 suppresses, whereas IL-10 enhances, L. major infection. The mechanisms that regulate this difference in CD40-induced cytokine production remain unclear, but it is known that L. major depletes cholesterol. Here we show that cholesterol influenced the assembly of distinct CD40 signalosomes. Depletion of membrane cholesterol inhibited the assembly of an IL-12-inducing CD40 signalosome containing the adaptors TRAF2, TRAF3 and TRAF5 and the kinase Lyn and promoted the assembly of an IL-10-inducing CD40 signalosome containing the adaptor TRAF6 and the kinase Syk. Thus, cholesterol depletion might represent an immune-evasion strategy used by L. major.

How tumour suppressor p53 bifurcates cell cycle arrest and apoptosis and executes these distinct pathways is not clearly understood. We show that BAX and PUMA promoters harbour an identical MAR element and are transcriptional targets of SMAR1. On mild DNA damage, SMAR1 selectively represses BAX and PUMA through binding to the MAR independently of inducing p53 deacetylation through HDAC1. This generates an anti-apoptotic response leading to cell cycle arrest. Importantly, knockdown of SMAR1 induces apoptosis, which is abrogated in the absence of p53. Conversely, apoptotic DNA damage results in increased size and number of promyelocytic leukaemia (PML) nuclear bodies with consequent sequestration of SMAR1. This facilitates p53 acetylation and restricts SMAR1 binding to BAX and PUMA MAR leading to apoptosis. Thus, our study establishes MAR as a damage responsive cis element and SMAR1-PML crosstalk as a switch that modulates the decision between cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in response to DNA damage.

TLRs, which form an interface between mammalian host and microbe, play a key role in pathogen recognition and initiation of proinflammatory response thus stimulating antimicrobial activity and host survival. However, certain intracellular pathogens such as Leishmania can successfully manipulate the TLR signaling, thus hijacking the defensive strategies of the host. Despite the presence of lipophosphoglycan, a TLR2 ligand capable of eliciting host-defensive cytokine response, on the surface of Leishmania, the strategies adopted by the parasite to silence the TLR2-mediated proinflammatory response is not understood. In this study, we showed that Leishmania donovani modulates the TLR2-mediated pathway in macrophages through inhibition of the IKK–NF-κB cascade and suppression of IL-12 and TNF-α production. This may be due to impairment of the association of TRAF6 with the TAK–TAB complex, thus inhibiting the recruitment of TRAF6 in TLR2 signaling. L. donovani infection drastically reduced Lys 63-linked ubiquitination of TRAF6, and the deubiquitinating enzyme A20 was found to be significantly upregulated in infected macrophages. Small interfering RNA-mediated silencing of A20 restored the Lys 63-linked ubiquitination of TRAF6 as well as IL-12 and TNF-α levels with a concomitant decrease in IL-10 and TGF-β synthesis in infected macrophages. Knockdown of A20 led to lower parasite survival within macrophages. Moreover, in vivo silencing of A20 by short hairpin RNA in BALB/c mice led to increased NF-κB DNA binding and host-protective proinflammatory cytokine response resulting in effective parasite clearance. These results suggest that L. donovani might exploit host A20 to inhibit the TLR2-mediated proinflammatory gene expression, thus escaping the immune responses of the host.

To reside and multiply successfully within the host macrophages, Leishmania parasites impair the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are a major host defense mechanism against any invading pathogen. Mitochondrial uncoupling proteins are associated with mitochondrial ROS generation, which is the major contributor of total cellular ROS generation. In the present study we have demonstrated that Leishmania donovani infection is associated with strong upregulation of uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2), a negative regulator of mitochondrial ROS generation located at the inner membrane of mitochondria. Functional knockdown of macrophage UCP2 by small interfering RNA-mediated silencing was associated with increased mitochondrial ROS generation, lower parasite survival, and induction of marked proinflammatory cytokine response. Induction of proinflammatory cytokine response in UCP2 knocked-down cells was a direct consequence of p38 and ERK1/2 MAPK activation, which resulted from ROS-mediated inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Administration of ROS quencher, N-acetyl-l-cysteine, abrogated PTP inhibition in UCP2 knocked-down infected cells, implying a role of ROS in inactivating PTP. Short hairpin RNA-mediated in vivo silencing of UCP2 resulted in decreased Src homology 2 domain-containing tyrosine phosphatase 1 and PTP-1B activity and host-protective proinflammatory cytokine response resulting in effective parasite clearance. To our knowledge, this study, for the first time, reveals the induction of host UCP2 expression during Leishmania infection to downregulate mitochondrial ROS generation, thereby possibly preventing ROS-mediated PTP inactivation to suppress macrophage defense mechanisms.