In biological fluids, proteins bind to the surface of nanoparticles to form a coating known as the protein corona, which can critically affect the interaction of the nanoparticles with living systems. As physiological systems are highly dynamic, it is important to obtain a time-resolved knowledge of protein-corona formation, development and biological relevancy. Here we show that label-free snapshot proteomics can be used to obtain quantitative time-resolved profiles of human plasma coronas formed on silica and polystyrene nanoparticles of various size and surface functionalization. Complex time- and nanoparticle-specific coronas, which comprise almost 300 different proteins, were found to form rapidly (<0.5 minutes) and, over time, to change significantly in terms of the amount of bound protein, but not in composition. Rapid corona formation is found to affect haemolysis, thrombocyte activation, nanoparticle uptake and endothelial cell death at an early exposure time.

In biological fluids, proteins associate with nanoparticles, leading to a protein "corona" defining the biological identity of the particle. However, a comprehensive knowledge of particle-guided protein fingerprints and their dependence on nanomaterial properties is incomplete. We studied the long-lived ("hard") blood plasma derived corona on monodispersed amorphous silica nanoparticles differing in size (20, 30, and 100 nm). Employing label-free liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, one- and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, and immunoblotting the composition of the protein corona was analyzed not only qualitatively but also quantitatively. Detected proteins were bioinformatically classified according to their physicochemical and biological properties. Binding of the 125 identified proteins did not simply reflect their relative abundance in the plasma but revealed an enrichment of specific lipoproteins as well as proteins involved in coagulation and the complement pathway. In contrast, immunoglobulins and acute phase response proteins displayed a lower affinity for the particles. Protein decoration of the negatively charged particles did not correlate with protein size or charge, demonstrating that electrostatic effects alone are not the major driving force regulating the nanoparticle-protein interaction. Remarkably, even differences in particle size of only 10 nm significantly determined the nanoparticle corona, although no clear correlation with particle surface volume, protein size, or charge was evident. Particle size quantitatively influenced the particle's decoration with 37% of all identified proteins, including (patho)biologically relevant candidates. We demonstrate the complexity of the plasma corona and its still unresolved physicochemical regulation, which need to be considered in nanobioscience in the future.

Besides the wide use of engineered nanomaterials (NMs) in technical products, their applications are not only increasing in biotechnology and biomedicine, but also in the environmental field. While the physico-chemical properties and behaviour of NMs can be characterized accurately under idealized conditions, this is no longer the case in complex physiological or natural environments. Herein, proteins and other biomolecules rapidly bind to NMs, forming a protein/biomolecule corona that critically affects the NMs' (patho)biological and technical identities. As the corona impacts the in vitro and/or in vivo NM applications in humans and ecosystems, a mechanistic understanding of its relevance and of the biophysical forces regulating corona formation is mandatory. Based on recent insights, we here critically review and present an updated concept of corona formation and evolution. We comment on how corona signatures may be linked to effects at the nano-bio interface in physiological and environmental systems. In order to comprehensively analyse corona profiles and to mechanistically understand the coronas' biological/ecological impact, we present a tiered multidisciplinary approach. To stimulate progress in this field, we introduce the potential impact of the corona for NM-microbiome-(human)host interactions and the novel concept of 'nanologicals', i.e., the nanomaterial-specific targeting of molecular machines. We conclude by discussing the relevant challenges that still need to be resolved in this field.