It was previously demonstrated that fluid liposomal-encapsulated tobramycin, named Fluidosomes, was successful in eradicating mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa in an animal model of chronic pulmonary infection, whereas free antibiotic did not reduce colony-forming unit (CFU) counts (C. Beaulac et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40 (1996) 665-669; C. Beaulac et al., J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 41 (1998) 35-41). These liposomes were also shown to be bactericidal in in vitro tests against strong resistant P. aeruginosa 64 microg/ml). The time needed to reach the maximal fusion rate was about 5 h for the resistant strain comparatively to much shorter time for the sensitive strain. The specific characteristics of Fluidosomes could help overcome bacterial resistance related to permeability barrier and even enzymatic hydrolysis considering the importance of synergy in the whole process of antibiotic resistance.

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A number of studies have substantiated the pivotal role of innate defense mechanisms in protection against invasive aspergillosis. However, experiments demonstrating increased resistance to lethal intravenous (i.v.) infection with Aspergillusfumigatus conidia in cortisone-treated or untreated mice preinfected with a sublethal dose of conidia and protection of turkeys inoculated subcutaneously with a killed A.fiumigatus germling vaccine against subsequent aerosol challenge led us to speculate that acquired immunity may also contribute to host defense against Aspergilus infection. Five-week-old male BALB/c mice were inoculated i.v. with 1.0 x 104 viable conidia or saline and challenged i.v. with 1.0 x 106 conidia after 7, 15, or 21 days. No protection against challenge was found after 7 days. However, significant and reproducible protection was observed after 15 and 21 days. Mortality was reduced from 90% in control mice to 53% in preinfected mice 40 days after challenge (P = 0.0002). Increased survival was correlated with decreased content of chitin in lungs, liver, and kidneys 4 and 7 days after challenge (P < 0.05). Mice were again inoculated with 1.0 x 104 conidia or saline, and after 21 days, 1.0 x 10' or 2.0 x 108 splenocytes were transferred to naive syngeneic recipients; 2.0 x 10' immune splenocytes conferred significant protection (P = 0.0001) against i.v. challenge with 1.0 x 106 conidia, and mortality decreased from 83 to 48% 40 days after challenge. Transfer of immune serum offered no protection despite the presence of antibody against a hyphal homogenate ofA.fmigatus, which was absent in the sera of control mice. Protection by immune splenocytes was maintained after selective depletion of T cells but was abolished after removal of plastic-adherent splenocytes. Adherent cells were characterized as macrophages by using morphological criteria, nonspecific esterase, and MAC-1 monoclonal antibody. Production of hydrogen peroxide by peritoneal and splenic macrophages from preinfected mice was the same as and lower than, respectively, that from uninfected controls. However, phagocytosis of conidia by peritoneal or splenic macrophages from mice preinfected i.v. or intratracheally was significantly increased after 2 and 3 h of coculture compared with that from uninfected animals, whereas in vitro killing of conidia by splenic macrophages was unaltered. Peritoneal or splenic macrophages from control or preinfected mice failed to kill hyphae in vitro. Killing of hyphae by polymorphonuclear leukocytes was not significantly different between mice preinfected i.v. and uninfected controls. Taken together, the results indicate that acquired immunity mediated by activated macrophages can be demonstrated in experimental murine aspergillosis. Although the mechanism is present biologically, its relevance against the invasive hyphal form ofA. fimigatus is doubtful.

BackgroundThe tissue-signaling cytokines IL-17 and IL-22 are critical to host defense against oral Candida albicans infection, by their induction of oral antimicrobial peptide expression and recruitment of neutrophils. Mucosal Th17 cells which produce these cytokines are preferentially depleted in HIV-infected patients. Here, we tested the hypothesis that defective IL-17- and IL-22-dependent host responses to C. albicans determine the phenotype of susceptibility to oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) in transgenic (Tg) mice expressing HIV-1.ResultsNaïve CD4+ T-cells and the differentiated Th1, Th2, Th17, Th1Th17 and Treg lineages were all profoundly depleted in cervical lymph nodes (CLNs) of these Tg mice. However, naive CD4+ cells from Tg mice maintained the capacity to differentiate into these lineages in response to polarizing cytokines in vitro. Expression of Il17, Il22, S100a8 and Ccl20 was enhanced in oral mucosal tissue of non-Tg, but not of Tg mice, after oral infection with C. albicans. Treatment of infected Tg mice with the combination of IL-17 and IL-22, but not IL-17 or Il-22 alone, significantly reduced oral burdens of C. albicans and abundance of Candida hyphae in the epithelium of tongues of infected Tg mice, and restored the ability of the Tg mice to up-regulate expression of S100a8 and Ccl20 in response to C. albicans infection.ConclusionsThese findings demonstrate that defective IL-17- and IL-22-dependent induction of innate mucosal immunity to C. albicans is central to the phenotype of susceptibility to OPC in these HIV transgenic mice.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12865-014-0049-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The impairments of protective mucosal immunity which cause susceptibility to oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) in HIV infection remain undefined. This study used a model of OPC in CD4C/HIV MutA transgenic (Tg) mice expressing Rev, Env, and Nef of HIV-1 to investigate the role of transgene expressing dendritic cells (DCs) and CD4+ T cells in maintenance of chronic oral carriage of Candida albicans. DCs were depleted in the Tg mice and had an immature phenotype, with low expression of MHC class II and IL-12. CD4+ T cells were quantitatively reduced in the oral mucosa, cervical lymph nodes (CLNs) and peripheral blood of the Tg mice, and displayed a polarization toward a nonprotective Th2 response. Proliferation of CLN CD4+ T cells from infected Tg mice in response to C. albicans Ag in vitro was abrogated and the cells failed to acquire an effector phenotype. Coculture of C. albicans-pulsed DCs with CD4+ T cells in vitro showed that Tg expression in either or both of these cell populations sharply reduced the proliferation of CD4+ T cells and their production of IL-2. Finally, transfer of naive non-Tg CD4+ T cells into these Tg mice restored proliferation to C. albicans Ag and sharply reduced oral burdens of C. albicans. Overall, these results indicate that defective CD4+ T cells primarily determine the susceptibility to chronic carriage of C. albicans in these Tg mice.