Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are critical in mediating innate immune responses against infections. However, uncontrolled TLR-triggered inflammation is associated with endotoxin shock. To better understand the homeostatic mechanisms induced by TLR4 signaling, we screened a group of key cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and their receptors for bacteria- or LPS-induced expression. The surface vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 (VEGFR-3) and its ligand VEGF-C were upregulated in macrophages. VEGFR-3 ligation by VEGF-C significantly attenuated proinflammatory cytokine production. Notably, ablation of the ligand-binding domain or tyrosine kinase activity of VEGFR-3 rendered mice more sensitive to septic shock. VEGFR-3 restrained TLR4-NF-κB activation by regulating the PI3-kinase-Akt signaling pathway and SOCS1 expression. Aside from targeting lymphatic vessels, we suggest a key role of VEGFR-3 on macrophages to prevent infections that is complicated with lymphoedema. Thus, VEGFR-3-VEGF-C signaling represents a "self-control" mechanism during antibacterial innate immunity.

PD-1 negatively regulates CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) cytotoxicity and anti-tumor immunity. However, it is not fully understood how PD-1 expression on CD8+ CTL is regulated during anti-tumor immunotherapy. In this study, we have identified that the ADAP-SKAP55 signaling module reduced CD8+ CTL cytotoxicity and enhanced PD-1 expression in a Fyn-, Ca2+-, and NFATc1-dependent manner. In DC vaccine-based tumor prevention and therapeutic models, knockout of SKAP55 or ADAP showed a heightened protection from tumor formation or metastases in mice and reduced PD-1 expression in CD8+ effector cells. Interestingly, CTLA-4 levels and the percentages of tumor infiltrating CD4+Foxp3+ Tregs remained unchanged. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of SKAP55-deficient or ADAP-deficient CD8+ CTLs significantly blocked tumor growth and increased anti-tumor immunity. Pretreatment of wild-type CD8+ CTLs with the NFATc1 inhibitor CsA could also downregulate PD-1 expression and enhance anti-tumor therapeutic efficacy. Together, we propose that targeting the unrecognized ADAP-SKAP55-NFATc1-PD-1 pathway might increase efficacy of anti-tumor immunotherapy.