To determine the daily energy requirements of professional soccer players during a competitive season, we measured total energy expenditure in seven players (age 22.1+/-1.9 years, height 1.75+/-0.05 m, mass 69.8+/-4.7 kg; mean +/- s) using the doubly labelled water method. Energy intake was simultaneously estimated from 7 day self-report dietary records. Mean total energy expenditure and energy intake were 14.8+/-1.7 MJ x day(-1) (3532+/-408 kcal x day(-1)) and 13.0+/-2.4 MJ x day(-1) (3113+/-581 kcal x day(-1)), respectively. Although there was a significant difference between total energy expenditure and energy intake (P < 0.01), there was a strong relationship between the two (r= 0.893, P< 0.01). Basal metabolic rate and recommended energy allowance calculated from the Recommended Dietary Allowances for the Japanese were 7.0+/-0.3 MJ x day(-1) (1683+/-81 kcal x day(-1)) and 15.6+/-0.8 MJ x day(-1) (3739+/-180 kcal x day(-1)), respectively. A physical activity level (total energy expenditure/ basal metabolic rate) of 2.11+/-0.30 indicated that, during the competitive season, professional soccer players undertake much routine physical activity, similar to that of competitive athletes during moderate training. Energy intake estimated using dietary records was under-reported, suggesting that its calculation from these data does not predict energy expenditure in soccer players.

To determine the daily energy requirement of elite synchronized swimmers during moderate-intensity training, the average daily energy expenditure measured by the doubly labeled water method, was calculated for nine female Japanese national team synchronized swimmers [four senior; mean (SD) 22.5 (1.0) years old, 52.2 (3.6) kg, and five junior; 17.6 (1.1) years old, 52.8 (2.3) kg]. Their total energy expenditure (TEE) was 11.5 (2.8) MJ x day(-1) [2738 (672) kcal day(-1)]. When compared with estimated energy requirements derived from "Recommended Dietary Allowances for the Japanese", 12.1 (0.6) MJ day(-1) [2897 (139) kcal day(-1)], there was no difference between mean actual and estimated energy requirements. However, there were considerable differences observed on an individual basis. Their energy intake, estimated from 7- day self-reported dietary records, was 8.9 (1.7) MJ day(-1) [2128 (395) kcal x day(-1)], which was significantly lower than their TEE (P<0.05). Resting energy expenditure (REE), as determined by indirect calorimetry, was 5.2 (0.3) MJ x day(-1) [1247 (75) kcal x day(-1)]. Their physical activity level (TEE/REE) was 2.18 (0.43). These results demonstrate that the TEE values of elite female synchronized swimmers are not dissimilar to those reported for athletes participating in other sports, especially competitive swimmers during moderate-intensity training.

To determine the effects of resistance versus aerobic exercise on the mass, strength and turnover of bone. thirty Sprague Dawley rats (4 weeks of age) were assigned to one of three experimental groups: sedentary, running or jumping. In the jumping group, the trunk was kept upright during electrically stimulated jumping exercise for 1 h every other day. The running rats ran at speeds of 24 m/min for 1 h every other day. After 4 weeks, the jumping rats exhibited increases in the mass and strength of the lumbar vertebrae and of the mid-diaphysis of the femur (mid-femur), and increases in the cross-sectional morphology of these bones: the trabecular bone volume per bone surface, the trabecular thickness, the trabecular bone formation rate per bone surface (BFR/BS). In addition, they exhibited reduced trabecular separation and the area of osteoclast surface per bone surface. The running and sedentary rats showed no such changes. With regard to the mid-femur, in both the jumping and running rats the periosteal BFR/BS was increased. However, only the jumping rats showed a reduction in the BFR/BS at the endocortical surface. These results suggest that resistance exercise accelerates cortical drift and increases the bone mass and strength by stimulating bone formation more efficiently than does aerobic exercise.

Effects of long-term exercise on volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD), bone mineral content, bone geometric properties, and the strength indexes of bone were examined in a cross-sectional study of athletes and controls. Tibias of 25 jumpers (13 women), 30 swimmers (15 women), and 25 controls (15 women), aged 18-23 yr, were scanned at midsite by using peripheral quantitative computed tomography. The cortical vBMD of female athletes was lower than that of the controls (2.00 +/- 0.05, 1.90 +/- 0.08, and 1.92 +/- 0.12 g/cm3, respectively, for controls, swimmers, and jumpers). On the other hand, periosteal areas of male jumpers and female athletes were greater than that of controls (460 +/- 50, 483 +/- 46, and 512 +/- 55 mm2, respectively, for male controls, swimmers, and jumpers, and 283 +/- 52, 341 +/- 73, and 378 +/- 75 mm2, respectively, for female controls, swimmers, and jumpers). The endocortical area of female swimmers was greater than that of controls (103 +/- 29, 148 +/- 52, and 135 +/- 54 mm2, respectively, for controls, swimmers, and jumpers). The polar moment of inertia and strength strain index of male jumpers and female athletes were significantly greater than those of controls, except for the difference in strength strain index between male jumpers and controls. We conclude that the improvement of mechanical properties of young adult bone in response to long-term exercise is related to geometric adaptation and not to vBMD.

In a previous study using young Japanese men as subjects, Ebine et al, found