Genome hypermutation of different orthoretroviruses by cellular cytidine deaminases of the APOBEC3 family during reverse transcription has recently been observed. Lentiviruses like HIV-1 have acquired proteins preventing genome editing in the newly infected cell. Here we show that feline foamy virus (FFV), a typical member of the foamy retrovirus subfamily Spumaretrovirinae, is also refractory to genome deamination. APOBEC3-like FFV genome editing in APOBEC3-positive feline CRFK cells only occurs when the accessory FFV Bet protein is functionally inactivated. Editing of bet-deficient FFV genomes is paralleled by a strong decrease in FFV titer. In contrast to lentiviruses, cytidine deamination already takes place in APOBEC3-positive FFV-producing cells, because edited proviral DNA genomes are consistently present in released particles. By cloning the feline APOBEC3 orthologue, we found that its homology to the second domain of human APOBEC3F is 48%. Expression of feline APOBEC3 in APOBEC3-negative human 293T cells reproduced the effects seen in homologous CRFK cells: Betdeficient FFV displayed severely reduced titers, high-level genome editing, reduced particle release, and suppressed Gag processing. Although WT Bet efficiently preserved FFV infectivity and genome integrity, it sustained particle release and Gag processing only when fe3 was moderately expressed. Similar to lentiviral Vif proteins, FFV Bet specifically bound feline APOBEC3. In particles from Bet-deficient FFV, feline APOBEC3 was clearly present, whereas its foamy viral antagonist Bet was undetectable in purified WT particles. This is the first report that, in addition to lentiviruses, the foamy viruses also developed APOBEC3-counteracting proteins.cytidine deamination ͉ virion infectivity factor ͉ spumaretrovirus ͉ restriction factor ͉ zoonosis

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BackgroundResistance to 3rd-generation cephalosporins in Escherichia coli is mostly mediated by extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) or AmpC beta-lactamases. Besides overexpression of the species-specific chromosomal ampC gene, acquisition of plasmid-encoded ampC genes, e.g. blaCMY-2, has been described worldwide in E. coli from humans and animals. To investigate a possible transmission of blaCMY-2 along the food production chain, we conducted a next-generation sequencing (NGS)-based analysis of 164 CMY-2-producing E. coli isolates from humans, livestock animals and foodstuff from Germany.ResultsThe data of the 164 sequenced isolates revealed 59 different sequence types (STs); the most prevalent ones were ST38 (n = 19), ST131 (n = 16) and ST117 (n = 13). Two STs were present in all reservoirs: ST131 (human n = 8; food n = 2; animal n = 6) and ST38 (human n = 3; animal n = 9; food n = 7). All but one CMY-2-producing ST131 isolates belonged to the clade B (fimH22) that differed substantially from the worldwide dominant CTX-M-15-producing clonal lineage ST131-O25b clade C (fimH30). Plasmid replicon types IncI1 (n = 61) and IncK (n = 72) were identified for the majority of blaCMY-2-carrying plasmids. Plasmid sequence comparisons showed a remarkable sequence identity, especially for IncK plasmids. Associations of replicon types and distinct STs were shown for IncK and ST57, ST429 and ST38 as well as for IncI1 and ST58. Additional β-lactamase genes (blaTEM, blaCTX-M, blaOXA, blaSHV) were detected in 50% of the isolates, and twelve E. coli from chicken and retail chicken meat carried the colistin resistance gene mcr-1.ConclusionWe found isolates of distinct E. coli clonal lineages (ST131 and ST38) in all three reservoirs. However, a direct clonal relationship of isolates from food animals and humans was only noticeable for a few cases. The CMY-2-producing E. coli-ST131 represents a clonal lineage different from the CTX-M-15-producing ST131-O25b cluster. Apart from the STdriven spread, plasmid-mediated spread, especially via IncI1 and IncK plasmids, likely plays an important role for emergence and transmission of blaCMY-2 between animals and humans.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-4976-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.