This work demonstrated that ultrasmall gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) smaller than 10 nm display unique advantages over nanoparticles larger than 10 nm in terms of localization to, and penetration of, breast cancer cells, multicellular tumor spheroids, and tumors in mice. Au@tiopronin nanoparticles that have tunable sizes from 2 to 15 nm with identical surface coatings of tiopronin and charge were successfully prepared. For monolayer cells, the smaller the Au@tiopronin NPs, the more AuNPs found in each cell. In addition, the accumulation of Au NPs in the ex vivo tumor model was size-dependent: smaller AuNPs were able to penetrate deeply into tumor spheroids, whereas 15 nm nanoparticles were not. Owing to their ultrasmall nanostructure, 2 and 6 nm nanoparticles showed high levels of accumulation in tumor tissue in mice after a single intravenous injection. Surprisingly, both 2 and 6 nm Au@tiopronin nanoparticles were distributed throughout the cytoplasm and nucleus of cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, whereas 15 nm Au@tiopronin nanoparticles were found only in the cytoplasm, where they formed aggregates. The ex vivo multicellular spheroid proved to be a good model to simulate in vivo tumor tissue and evaluate nanoparticle penetration behavior. This work gives important insights into the design and functionalization of nanoparticles to achieve high levels of accumulation in tumors.

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We present a flexible and highly reproducible method using three-dimensional (3D) multicellular tumor spheroids to quantify chemotherapeutic and nanoparticle penetration properties in vitro. We generated HeLa cell-derived spheroids using the liquid overlay method. To properly characterize HeLa spheroids, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and multiphoton microscopy were used to obtain high-resolution 3D images of HeLa spheroids. Next, pairing high-resolution optical characterization techniques with flow cytometry, we quantitatively compared the penetration of doxorubicin, quantum dots, and synthetic micelles into 3D HeLa spheroid versus HeLa cells grown in a traditional two-dimensional culturing system. Our data revealed that 3D cultured HeLa cells acquired several clinically relevant morphologic and cellular characteristics (such as resistance to chemotherapeutics) often found in human solid tumors. These characteristic, however, could not be captured using conventional two-dimensional cell culture techniques. This study demonstrated the remarkable versatility of HeLa spheroid 3D imaging. In addition, our results revealed the capability of HeLa spheroids to function as a screening tool for nanoparticles or synthetic micelles that, due to their inherent size, charge, and hydrophobicity, can penetrate into solid tumors and act as delivery vehicles for chemotherapeutics. The development of this image-based, reproducible, and quantifiable in vitro HeLa spheroid screening tool will greatly aid future exploration of chemotherapeutics and nanoparticle delivery into solid tumors.

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