Most rivers and streams in the city of Oslo, Norway, rise in the surrounding forests, and all run through industrial and urban areas before they reach the sea. Most of these rivers have a long history of poor water quality in the middle and lower reaches until the early 1980s. This was reflected in low benthic diversity and the absence of fish. However, at the end of the 1970s, considerable efforts were made to limit industrial discharges, pollution episodes, and urban runoff, resulting in a substantial improvement in water quality. This improvement in water quality resulted in major changes in the benthos and fish populations of the rivers, especially the river Akerselva, which runs through the city centre. Here Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) became extinct in the mid-1800s and did not return until 1983. Atlantic salmon and sea trout (Salmo trutta) now spawn in the lower reaches, and the river supports juvenile populations of these salmonids. In line with the improvement in water quality, benthic biodiversity has also increased. These improvements have been documented based on long-term monitoring of benthos and fish. Increased benthic diversity and presence of fish also enabled the authorities to trace the source of several pollution episodes that led to fish kills. The European Union Water Framework Directive will bring further pressure to maintain a stable and good ecological status for the Oslo rivers, although it may be difficult to attain this goal in an urban environment.