“…CNNs have proven to be superior to traditional computer vision methods for image segmentation, achieving high resolution (He et al, 2020;Hessenkemper et al, 2022). Various CNN approaches have been explored for bubble segmentation, such as the use of region-based CNNs like Faster-RCNN (Haas et al, 2020), sliding window-based CNN (Poletaev et al, 2020), and the implementation of segmentation masks through Mask RCNN, which not only classifies but also assigns each pixel to individual bubble objects (Cui et al, 2021;Hessenkemper et al, 2022;Kim & Park, 2021;Wang et al, 2023). Although significant progress made with CNN-based techniques has been made in recent years, challenges persist in segmenting very complex images, such as those obtained in industrial settings, which are typically subject to wide bubble-size distributions, high gas content, cloudiness due to the presence of solid particles, and lighting issues.…”