“…Microstructure evolution is closely linked to material properties (Campbell, 2003); hence, one can use numerical modelling to design and optimise high-quality castings. Different approaches are used for modelling dendritic solidification, for example, the cellular automaton model (Reuther and Rettenmayr, 2014;Dobravec et al, 2017), level-set method (Gibou et al, 2003;Tan and Zabaras, 2006) and phase-field (PF) method (Chen, 2002;Boettinger et al, 2002;Dong et al, 2017;Karma and Tourret, 2016). This study uses the PF method, a powerful approach for solving various free boundary problems in materials science (Provatas and Elder, 2010;Steinbach, 2009).…”