“…In veterinary medicine, plasma cortisol and C-reactive protein (CRP) have both been studied in the context of surgical stress markers since the mid-1990s. 1,4,5,[11][12][13] Those studies identified that all forms of surgery increased plasma cortisol concentrations markedly and that increases were greatest in the first 6 h, with a return to presurgical levels by 24 h. 1,4,5,12,13 It has also been reported that cortisol responses are altered by different types of analgesic and surgical techniques, with painful or invasive techniques causing greater increases in the cortisol concentration. It increases transiently in response to stressors such as pain, excitement, fear or anxiety, or more chronically in long-term stress.…”