A Comprehensive Examination of the Protocols, Technologies, and Safety Requirements for Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EVs) have various advantages over traditional internal combustion engines (ICEs), including reduced carbon emissions, greater energy efficiency, and a lessened reliance on petroleum supplies. The use of EV charging infrastructure and power levels are reviewed in this article. Battery performance is affected by the design of the battery as well as the charger parameters and infrastructure. In this paper, the off-board and on-board charging methods with bidirectional and unidirectional power flow are compared. Hardware restrictions and connectivity concerns are eased with a unidirectional charger. The bidirectional charger enables both battery energy injection back into the grid and the vehicle. Power is constrained by the onboard charger due to its size, weight, and price. Both conductive and inductive onboard chargers are viable. For high current rates, which are not supported by EVs, it is feasible to develop an off-board charger. The time required for charging, amount of power, cost, equipment, location, infrastructure configurations, and other parameters are provided, compared, and reviewed for different power level chargers, such as level-1 (slow), level-2 (semi-fast), and level-3 (fast).

Overview of Sustainable Mobility: The Role of Electric Vehicles in Energy Communities

“…This issue is particularly critical in the event of network failure, when the bidirectional system must be safely disconnected from the grid; or, more generally, the problem is battery degradation. According to a study by the University of Delaware, an EV can store up to 10 kW of energy for a household during a power outage [181][182][183].…”

“…Volkswagen's Elli brand collaborates with utility providers to develop solutions for integrating vehicles into the grid. This partnership focuses on four different areas, namely pricing and user adoption of V2G technology, marketing, reliability, and safety of EV data, to create trust and data security [181][182][183][184][185][186]. Hyundai Motor Company showcased its vehicle-to-load (V2L) capabilities by powering a hotel in England with a fleet of Hyundai Ioniq 5 vehicles [144,[169][170][171][172]187].…”