“…The OH − stretching in the CNF had a sharper peak when compared to that of the MCC, which indicated that the increase of the hydrogen bonding facilitated re-aggregation of nanocellulose as a consequence of the ultrasonication process. 53 The peaks at 1367–1368 and 2896–2899 cm −1 were attributed to the symmetric bending and stretching modes of C–H, respectively. The absorption band at 1644 cm −1 corresponded to the bending mode of the absorbed water.…”
The CNF were functionalized in C-HAp nanorods-based scaffold with PVA reinforcement to promote high cell viability and cell attachment for NIH/3T3 fibroblast cells, which potentially can be applied in alveolar bone tissue engineering.
“…The OH − stretching in the CNF had a sharper peak when compared to that of the MCC, which indicated that the increase of the hydrogen bonding facilitated re-aggregation of nanocellulose as a consequence of the ultrasonication process. 53 The peaks at 1367–1368 and 2896–2899 cm −1 were attributed to the symmetric bending and stretching modes of C–H, respectively. The absorption band at 1644 cm −1 corresponded to the bending mode of the absorbed water.…”
The CNF were functionalized in C-HAp nanorods-based scaffold with PVA reinforcement to promote high cell viability and cell attachment for NIH/3T3 fibroblast cells, which potentially can be applied in alveolar bone tissue engineering.
“…Defibrillation of pulp GAP waste with the aid of ultrasonication process breaks the microfibrils into individual fibers produced uniformly dispersed nanosized fibers (Asem et al 2021 ). Cellulose fiber dissolution was achieved through the energy generated by ultrasonication in which the hydrogen bond gradually disintegrated the aggregations of the cellulose fibers (Mohd Ishak et al 2020 ). Fig.…”
Section: Resultsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…However, this process may shorten and reduce the crystallinity of cellulose fiber resulting in low mechanical properties that led to inferior qualities of the composite products and did not meet the requirement of the customers (Lin et al 2020 ; Ahmad Khorairi et al 2021 ; Asem et al 2021 ). Hence, the physical technique of ultrasonication homogenization process has been proposed to improve the cellulose extraction by increasing the cellulose dispersion and reduce the agglomeration of the cellulose for more stable suspension (Mohd Ishak et al 2020 ). Meanwhile, the ultrasonication treatment is feasible in enhancing the accessibility and reactivity of cellulose (Qu et al 2021 ).…”
Section: Introductionmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Ultrasonication homogenization treatment has been assisted with acid or alkaline in the extraction of cellulose from various lignocellulosic biomass such as wheat straw and oil palm bunch (Abdullah et al 2016 ), maize stalk (Gu et al 2020 ), and Miscanthus x gigantis grass (Singh et al 2020 ). High-pressure ultrasonication homogenization provides energy of approximately 10–100 kJ/mol which can break down the hydrogen bond and disintegrate the cellulose polymers into microfibrillated cellulose bonding by altering its size and morphology (Mohd Ishak et al 2020 ). The microbubbles generated by the ultrasonication process collapse during the compression cycle, producing high temperature and pressure which leads to the destruction of water molecules into free radicals of •O, •OH and HO 2 •.…”
Background
Cellulose extraction from gloss art paper (GAP) waste is a recycling strategy for the abundance of gloss art paper waste. Here, a study was conducted on the impact of ultrasonic homogenization for cellulose extraction from GAP waste to improve the particle size, crystallinity, and thermal stability.
Results
At treatment temperature of 75.8 °C, ultrasonic power level of 70.3% and 1.4 h duration, cellulose with properties of 516.4 nm particle size, 71.5% crystallinity, and thermal stability of 355.2 °C were extracted. Surface modification of cellulose GAP waste with H3PO4 hydrolysis and 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical (TEMPO) oxidation was done followed by starch reinforcement. Surface hydrophobicity and mechanical strength were increased for H3PO4 hydrolysis and TEMPO oxidation starch–cellulose. No reduction of thermal properties observed during the treatment, while increment of crystallinity index up to 47.65–59.6% was shown. Neat starch film was more transparent, followed by starch–TEMPO film and starch–H3PO4 film, due to better homogeneity.
Conclusions
The cellulose GAP reinforced starch film shows potential in developing packaging materials and simultaneously provide an alternative solution of GAP waste recycling.
Graphical Abstract
“…After ultrasonication, the crystallinity reduces to 62%. Ishak et al [388] studied the variation in characteristics of CNC produced in different ultrasonication time and amplitude. A low ultrasonication time of 5 min generates the lowest yield of (84%) highly crystalline CNC(73%).…”
Section: Mechanical Treatment For Nanocellulose Productionmentioning
Cellulose is one of the most abundant renewable biopolymer in nature and is present as major constituent in both plant cell walls as well as synthesized by some microorganisms as extracellular products. In both the systems, cellulose self-assembles into a hierarchical ordered architecture to form micro to nano-fibrillated structures, on basis of which it is classified into various forms. Nanocellulose (NCs) exist as rod-shaped highly crystalline cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) to high aspect ratio cellulose nanofibers (CNF), micro-fibrillated cellulose (MFC) and bacterial cellulose (BC), depending upon the origin, structural and morphological properties. Moreover, NCs have been processed into diversified products ranging from composite films, coatings, hydrogels, aerogels, xerogels, organogels, rheological modifiers, optically active birefringent colored films using traditional-to-advanced manufacturing techniques. With such versatility in structure-property, NCs have profound application in areas of healthcare, packaging, cosmetics, energy, food, electronics, bioremediation, and biomedicine with promising commercial potential. Herein this review, we highlight the recent advancements in synthesis, fabrication, processing of NCs, with strategic chemical modification routes to tailor its properties for targeted biomedical applications. We also study the basic mechanism and models for biosynthesis of cellulose in both plant and microbial systems and understand the structural insights of NC polymorphism. The kinetics study for both enzymatic/chemical modifications of NCs and microbial growth behavior of BC under various reactor configurations are studied. The challenges associated with the commercial aspects as well as industrial scale production of pristine and functionalized NCs to meet the growing demands of market are discussed and prospective strategies to mitigate them are described. Finally, post chemical modification evaluation of biological and inherent properties of NC are important to determine their efficacy for development of various products and technologies directed for biomedical applications.
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