A cross sectional study on Dutch layer farms to investigate the prevalence and potential risk factors for different Chlamydia species

Abstract

In poultry several Chlamydia species have been detected, but Chlamydia psittaci and Chlamydia gallinacea appear to be most prevalent and important. Chlamydia psittaci is a well-known zoonosis and is considered to be a pathogen of poultry. Chlamydia gallinacea has been described more recently. Its avian pathogenicity and zoonotic potential have to be further elucidated. Within the Netherlands no data were available on the presence of Chlamydia on poultry farms. As part of a surveillance programme for zoonotic pathogens in farm animals, we investigated pooled faecal samples from 151 randomly selected layer farms. On a voluntary base, 69 farmers, family members or farm workers from these 151 farms submitted a throat swab. All samples were tested with a generic 23S Chlamydiaceae PCR followed by a species specific PCR for C. avium, C. gallinacea and C. psittaci. C. avium and psittaci DNA was not detected at any of the farms. At 71 farms the positive result could be confirmed as C. gallinacea. Variables significantly associated with the presence of C. gallinacea in a final multivariable model were ‘age of hens,’ ‘use of bedding material’ and ‘the presence of horses.’ The presence of C. gallinacea was associated with neither clinical signs, varying from respiratory symptoms, nasal and ocular discharges to diarrhoea, nor with a higher mortality rate the day before the visit. All throat swabs from farmers, family members or farm workers tested negative for Chlamydia DNA, giving no further indication for possible bird-to-human (or human-to-bird) transmission.

Chlamydiaceae: Diseases in Primary Hosts and Zoonosis

“…C. ibidis are three newly described avian chlamydial species. Thus far, C. avium has been detected in pigeons and psittacine birds, whereas C. gallinacea is endemic in domestic poultry, and is capable of infecting chickens, ducks, guinea fowls, turkeys, and possibly other birds [12,13,22,23,158,166,167,168,169,170,171]. Thus far, feral sacred ibis is the sole known animal reservoir for Ca.…”

Urogenital chlamydia trachomatis treatment failure with azithromycin: A meta-analysis

“…The complaint of the patients with chlamydia included cervicitis (4), urethritis (8), and urogenital chlamydia (9). Chlamydia was diagnosed based on an EIA, cultures, the Nucleic-Acid Amplification Test (NAAT), Gram-stain, the Direct Fluorescence Assay (DFA), and clinical examinations, and the main outcome in all the studies was the assessment of the failure rate with azithromycin compared to other treatment strategies (i.e., Doxycycline, Rifalazil, Lymecycline, and Amoxicillin).…”

“…Trials comparing azithromycin with doxycycline or other medications for the treatment of Chlamydiatrachomatis in women (cervicitis, urethritis, and rectal infection) or men (urethritis and rectal infection) were assessed. The inclusion criteria were: (1) Being a randomized clinical trial or a clinical trial; (2) Comparing treatment regimens of oral azithromycin (single- or multiple-dose regimens) with oral doxycycline (twice daily 100░mg for seven days) or other regimens; (3) Being a man or woman over the age of 12; (4) Assessment of microbial or clinical recovery during a follow-up period of 1–9 wk; and (5) Reporting treatment failure during the trial.…”

“…The risk factors for chlamydial infection include age 15–24, several sexual partners, unprotected sex, and previous history of STDs. Being single and a poor socioeconomic status and education level is also associated with the incidence of this disease (4,5).…”

Chlamydia psittaciandC. aviumin feral pigeon (Columba livia domestica) droppings in two cities in the Netherlands

“…2017; Heijne et al. 2018) and there is some evidence that contact with garden birds may contribute to zoonotic transmission (Rehn et al. 2013).…”