A Discussion of Chain Referral As a Method of Sampling Hard-to-Reach Populations

Abstract

Nursing research often requires inquiry into sensitive topics that involve hidden or hard- to reach populations. However, identifying and sampling these populations for research purposes is often fraught with difficulties. Barriers include society's lack of tolerance of diverse groups, social stigma, concern for issues of confidentiality, and fear of exposure because of possible threats to security. Chain referral sampling techniques are proposed to minimize bias while maintaining privacy and confidentiality. Techniques of chain referral sampling are detailed for use in researching sensitive topics and hidden populations. When carefully planned and executed, this sampling design offers transcultural nurse researchers a reasonable method for accessing and studying special populations that are particularly hard-to-reach.

Percepção de risco: um campo de interesse para a interface ambiente, saúde e sustentabilidade

“…Through this technique, an individual suggests to the researcher the name of another individual, which provides the name of a third person and so on (Atkinson, Flint, 2001). For Penrod et al (2003), this technique is a non-probabilistic sampling, in which people initially selected for the sample are used as informants and help you find other individuals who necessarily have characteristics that make them "eligible" for research. According to Atkinson and Flint (2001), the snowball technique involves two proposals: i) may be an informal method to reach the target population to be studied involving interviews and that brings advantages for qualitative, exploratory and descriptive studies; but ii) may also be a formal method for making references about a group of individuals that is difficult to be enumerated using other methods such as research involving drug users, prostitution, criminals and disease-carriers.…”

“…The SAR, whose main focus is the perception and communication of risk, assumes that the perception of risk is primarily determined by how it is communicated through the media 4 and other sources. The analysis of how this information is communicated could explain thus the gain or attenuation of concerns about a certain risk (Pidgeon; Slovic, 2003).…”

“Not helping out”: classed strategies of the (non) contribution of children in immigrant family businesses

“…Interviewees were contacted initially through multiple sources, including migrant entrepreneur associations, council services to businesses, and informal contacts, in order to diversify the profile of interviewees. From these initial contacts, chain sampling (Penrod et al 2003) was employed, through which each interview placed the interviewer in touch with other entrepreneurs. The nationalities included in the sample have relatively higher rates of self-employment compared to other larger nationalities of Latin American migrants in Spain (such as Ecuadorians or Peruvians) (Villares-Varela 2012).…”

The Utility of Non-proportional Quota Sampling for Recruiting At-risk Women for Microbicide Research

“…However, recruiting women and racial/ethnic minorities into health related research can be challenging. Members of these groups may avoid research participation for a number of reasons, including fear of social stigma and, for some, the fear of breach of confidentiality regarding illegal activities (e.g., illicit use of substances) or immigration issues (Faugier & Sargeant, 1997;Magnani, Sabin, Saidel, & Heckathorn, 2005;Penrod, Preston, Cain, & Starks, 2003;Watters & Biernacki, 1989). Enrolling women in HIV prevention research may raise issues not present when enrolling men.…”

“…An advantage of snowball methods is that participants are likely to locate others with similar eligibility characteristics, while a disadvantage is over-representation by given sub-groups or social networks. Extensions of snowball sampling, including targeted sampling (Magnani et al, 2005), chain-referral sampling (Penrod et al, 2003), and respondent-driven sampling (Magnani et al, 2005;Ramirez-Valles, Heckathorn, Vazquez, Diaz, & Campbell, 2005), have attempted to advance traditional snowball sampling methods. Other strategies rely on recruitment locations, including facility-based sampling (Magnani et al, 2005), and time-location sampling (Magnani et al, 2005), identifying recruitment areas where specific participants can be accessed (Braunstein, 1993;Faugier & Sargeant, 1997;Kalsbeek, 2003;Killien et al, 2000;Magnani et al, 2005;Watters & Biernacki, 1989), and establishing a relationship and good communication with community organizations and community leaders to address potential participants' distrust (Coleman et al, 1997;Deren, Shedlin, Decena, & Mino, 2005;Harris et al, 2003;Killien et al, 2000;Marquez, Muhus, Tosomeen, Riggs, & Melton, 2003;Story et al, 2003;Yancey et al, 2006).…”