A guide to the expanding field of extracellular vesicles and their release in regulated cell death programs

Abstract

Homeostasis disruption is visible at the molecular and cellular levels and may often lead to cell death. This vital process allows us to maintain the more extensive system's integrity by keeping the different features (genetic, metabolic, physiologic, and individual) intact. Interestingly, while cells can die in different manners, dying cells still communicate with their environment. This communication was, for a long time, perceived as only driven by the release of soluble factors. However, it has now been reconsidered with the increasing interest in extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are discovered to be released during different regulated cell death programs, with the observation of specific effects.EVs are game changers in the paradigm of cell‐cell communication with tremendous implications in fundamental research with regards to non‐cell autonomous functions, as well as in biomarkers research, all of which are geared towards diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.This review is composed of two main parts. The first is a comprehensive presentation of the state of the art of the EV field at large. In the second part, we focus on EVs discovered to be released during different regulated cell death programs, also known as cell death EVs (cdEVs), and EV‐associated specific effects on recipient cells in the context of cell death and inflammation/inflammatory responses.

Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Selenium-Deficient MAC-T Cells Aggravated Inflammation and Apoptosis by Triggering the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Stress/PI3K-AKT-mTOR Pathway in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells

“…The extracellular vesicles' morphology, size, and markers are consistent with previous reports [42,43]. Extracellular vesicles act as a bridge of cell-cell communication, which has the potential to enter the cell in various ways and release their contents to transmit information [44,45]. In this study, after treating normal MAC-T cells with SeD-EV, SeD-EV was taken up into the cells and triggered inflammatory response and apoptosis.…”

Exosome-Mediated Antigen Delivery: Unveiling Novel Strategies in Viral Infection Control and Vaccine Design

“…EVs are constitutively produced by a wide variety of cell types. The capacity of cells to release vesicles appears to be a highly conserved mechanism throughout evolution, and has even been observed in bacterial communities [ 15 , 16 ]. As a consequence, large quantities of EVs can be detected in extracellular compartments.…”

Exosome-mediated Antigen Delivery: Unveiling Novel Strategies in Viral Infection Control

“…In contrast, exosomes are formed through biogenesis from endosomal membranes and are released after exocytosis, via cell secretion pathways. EVs are produced continuously from a wide variety of cell types and the capacity of cells to release vesicles appears to be a highly conserved mechanism throughout evolution [8,9]. The consequence of this mechanism is that large quantities of EVs can be detected in extracellular compartments.…”