A guide to the influence of bismuth on lead/acid battery performance

The influence of alloying elements on the electrochemistry of lead anodes for electrowinning of metals: A review

“…% solubility limit in pure Pb (Okamoto, 2010). Bi has various speculated effects on corrosion and oxygen evolution, with little agreement on any of these (Koop et al, 1993;Li et al, 2006) but there are suggestions that it is slightly more beneficial than damaging (Zhong et al, 1996).…”

“…However, should Co be added in even a very small amount, it can have a notable effect and the influence of Co can be realised by as little as 50-300 ppm of Co (Koop et al, 1993). A 200 ppm addition to a PbCaSn anode reduced the oxygen evolution potential by 150 mV .…”

Studying the effects of bismuth on the electrochemical properties of lead dioxide layers by using the in situ EQCM technique

“…However, the results and the explanations of some studies are confusing regarding to the effects of these additives on certain properties. In his review [25], Koop also stated that the published experimental evidences for both the perceived and actual effects of bismuth on lead-acid battery performance are complex and often contradictory. Therefore, it is evident that electrochemical studies combined with supplementary techniques are necessary to gain a deeper understanding of the complex behavior of PbO 2 electrode doped with bismuth.…”