A hypothesis to explain accuracy of wasp resemblances

Abstract

Mimicry is one of the oldest concepts in biology, but it still presents many puzzles and continues to be widely debated. Simulation of wasps with a yellow‐black abdominal pattern by other insects (commonly called “wasp mimicry”) is traditionally considered a case of resemblance of unprofitable by profitable prey causing educated predators to avoid models and mimics to the advantage of both (Figure 1a). However, as wasps themselves are predators of insects, wasp mimicry can also be seen as a case of resemblance to one's own potential antagonist. We here propose an additional hypothesis to Batesian and Müllerian mimicry (both typically involving selection by learning vertebrate predators; cf. Table 1) that reflects another possible scenario for the evolution of multifold and in particular very accurate resemblances to wasps: an innate, visual inhibition of aggression among look‐alike wasps, based on their social organization and high abundance. We argue that wasp species resembling each other need not only be Müllerian mutualists and that other insects resembling wasps need not only be Batesian mimics, but an innate ability of wasps to recognize each other during hunting is the driver in the evolution of a distinct kind of masquerade, in which model, mimic, and selecting agent belong to one or several species (Figure 1b). Wasp mimics resemble wasps not (only) to be mistaken by educated predators but rather, or in addition, to escape attack from their wasp models. Within a given ecosystem, there will be selection pressures leading to masquerade driven by wasps and/or to mimicry driven by other predators that have to learn to avoid them. Different pressures by guilds of these two types of selective agents could explain the widely differing fidelity with respect to the models in assemblages of yellow jackets and yellow jacket look‐alikes.

Balanced polymorphisms and their divergence in a Heliconius butterfly

“…Furthermore, the evolution of stark warning colorations (aposematism) increases the effectiveness of this evolutionary strategy by providing memorable patterns and colors to predators (Su et al, 2015 ). Examples of animals that through natural selection have trodden this evolutionary journey are familiar to many of us for their striking aspects (e.g., pit vipers, poison dart frogs, bumblebees, and wasps (Sanders et al, 2006 ; Symula et al, 2001 ; Williams, 2007 ; Boppré et al, 2016 )). The main mechanism driving this mimicry is known as positive frequency‐dependent selection (pFDS), where the most common warning signal is more likely to spread through a population as it will be most avoided by predators (Müller, 1879 ).…”

The scent chemistry of butterflies

“…23 Adult danaine males actively search for PAs, which can be found on withering plants. 24 The males then transfer the alkaloid onto the females during copulation, which in turn protects her eggs with PAs. 25 This transfer of male PAs into female eggs was mostly investigated in the arctiid moth Utetheisa ornatrix, which is easier to keep in the laboratory, but has also been demonstrated to exist in the queen buttery, Danaus gilippus.…”

“…As with the danaines, males are attracted to PAs, 24,59 feeding on them to protect themselves and to convert them into aphrodisiac pheromones, as with the danaines. Lycopsamine (6) is the primary PA stored in ithomiines, 60 and PAs with different side chain stereochemistry are converted into 6, at least in Mechanitis polymnia.…”

Sticky flatworms (Platyhelminthes) kill armored harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones) but are not immune to the prey′s weapons

“…In such cases, predation pressure exerted by distinct predators has probably contributed to the evolution of several defenses such beetles have. In general, it is poorly understood how each predator species contributed in shaping each of the prey's defenses (see Boppré, Vane‐Wright & Wickler, ). It is often assumed that one defensive mechanism fits all predators, but this view does not consider examples like the beetle above and many other predators that may use different sensory modalities (e.g.…”