A Longitudinal Examination of Military Veterans’ Invictus Games Stress Experiences

Abstract

This study explored patterns of change in stress variables (i.e., stressors, appraisals, emotions) encountered by wounded, injured, and sick military veterans in the build up to, during, and following an international sporting competition. The study also examined interactions between psychosocial variables and salivary biomarkers of stress and how these relate to veterans’ health, well-being, illness, and performance. 40 Invictus Games (IG) athletes and a control group of 20 military veteran athletes completed questionnaires at seven time points over a 12-week period. Furthermore, participants provided morning and evening saliva samples at four time points to measure cortisol and secretory immunoglobulin A. Multilevel growth curve analyses revealed significant changes in growth trajectories of stress-related variables. For example, team and culture stressors and anger and dejection emotions significantly increased in the build up to competition, whilst challenge appraisals and excitement and happiness emotions significantly decreased over the same time-frame. A number of the stress related variables also predicted performance, well-being, and mental health. Specifically, organizational stressors and threat appraisals were found to negatively relate to performance, well-being, and mental health. Furthermore, whilst challenge appraisals and problem focused coping positively related to veterans’ well-being, adopting emotion-focused and avoidance coping strategies negatively predicted well-being and mental health. Turning to emotions, experiencing anger, anxiety, and dejection negatively related to mental health, well-being and performance; whereas happiness and excitement displayed a positive relationship with these outcomes. The findings also highlighted that organizational stressor intensity was positively related to cortisol exposure at competition. To conclude, this study not only provides a novel, longitudinal, interdisciplinary insight into psychological and biological markers of the stress response as it relates to the performance, health, and well-being of military veterans, but also further contributes to theoretical understanding on the transactional nature of stress. Moreover, the findings significantly contribute to practice regarding how best to support this unique population in adaptively responding to and engaging with competitive sport.

Ingresso de atletas paralímpicos brasileiros no esporte de alto rendimento

“…Roberts et al 27 consider an effective importance of sport in the rehabilitation process, the authors relate using exercise in rehabilitation programs are highly effective strategies for promoting a healthier lifestyle for veterans.…”

Military rehabilitation programs and Paralympic Movement

“…Using exercise and recreation programs are highly effective strategies for promoting a healthier lifestyle for veterans. Both psychological (mind) and physical (body) improvement are combating social isolation, low levels of motivation and high levels of irritation (Roberts et al, 2019).…”

“…The relationship between rehabilitation programs and the competitive environment has been shown to be positive but having different levels of demands has also proved extremely important for the physical and mental rehabilitation process of armed conflict veterans. Sports competition should not be conducted as a stressor causing negative consequences for psychological, behavioural and immunological aspects (Roberts et al, 2019). Arab and Persian Gulf countries are constantly engaged in war activities and with a high number of disabled victims.…”

Challenges and stresses experienced by athletes and coaches leading up to the Paralympic Games

“…While the benefits of sport participation such as the development of motor skills and improved physical and psychosocial health are widely reported [1][2][3], the stresses and challenges associated with high-performance sport may buffer these positive effects [4]. Due to high-expectations, high-intensity training environments, increased media exposure, and more severe consequences for below-average performances, elite athletes are exposed to exhaustion and burn out, prone to physical injuries, and at the extreme cases, psychological and physical disorders [5,6].…”

“…Both Campbell and Jones [ 36 , 37 ] and Jefferies and colleagues [ 38 ] have explored the associated stress of Paralympic athletes before, during, and post-competition, with athletes worrying about their contribution to their team, the adequacy of their preparation for the games (e.g., whether training would result in match performance, not feeling fully fit, appropriate pre-match preparation), and how they will manage psychosocial pressures (preventing or treating nagging injuries, personal, and team performance potentials, consequences of results). Team culture (i.e., teammate personalities, conflicting goals, teammate behavior and interactions, roles and responsibilities, team disparity) was also identified as a key contributor to athlete stress and anger, leading to elevated stress levels in the build-up to competition [ 2 , 3 ]. Given our limited understanding in this area and (potentially) unique challenges (e.g., disability-related nuances, lack of resources or support, etc.)…”