“…At present, most underwater navigation systems are inertial navigation systems (INS). As the error of INS inevitably accumulates over time [1], many auxiliary measures need to be adopted, including Global Positioning System-(GPS-) aided methods [2,3], acoustic navigation methods [4,5], and Doppler velocity log-(DVL-) aided methods [6,7]. However, the limitation of these techniques is that the navigation system must rely on either electromagnetic wave signal (e.g., GPS signal), artificial beacons (e.g., long baseline), complex mathematical models (e.g., flow prediction model), or the accessibility of the sea bottom (e.g., DVL bottom tracking).…”