A meta-analysis of loneliness and use of primary health care

Abstract

Loneliness is a growing public health concern that is associated with a range of negative health outcomes. The extent to which loneliness may also be associated with greater use of primary health care remains unclear. The present meta-analysis aimed to address this gap by quantifying research on the association of loneliness to primary health care use. The database searches yielded 23 eligible studies with 25 effects, total N = 113,639. A random effects meta-analysis revealed a small positive average effect size (r avg = .094; 95% CI [.07, .12])between loneliness and the use of primary care that increased in magnitude as the proportion of females in the samples increased. Studies that used objective measures of primary care use yielded effects that were significantly larger than those using self-report measures. The effects were robust to differences in age and type of health-care systems, and the type of loneliness scale (single versus multi-item). The findings from this first comprehensive meta-analysis of the association of loneliness with use of primary care indicate that people who experience loneliness make a greater number of visits to primary-care practitioners. This evidence highlights the practical impact of loneliness on health-care use when viewed at the population level.

Factors Affecting the Patient Journey in Scheduling a Specialist Appointment in a Public Healthcare System

“…Living alone was also related to a greater likelihood of making a specialist appointment. This fits with the findings that elderly people living alone have generally poorer physical and emotional health, compared with those living with relatives ( 17 ), and that loneliness among older populations has been shown to be related to greater use of primary care services ( 18 , 19 ).…”

Retrospective cross-sectional study examining the association between loneliness and unmet healthcare needs among middle-aged and older adults using the Canadian Longitudinal Study of Aging (CLSA)

“…19 26 Researchers examining loneliness and visits to primary care providers have found that those who are lonely have a greater number of visits to providers than those who are not lonely. 25 These findings may in part be due to a lonely person's desire to connect socially with care providers and integrate the provider into their social network or support system. Lonely individuals having unmet healthcare needs may also point to challenges accessing other routine or preventative services and using health services outside a reactive, acute care setting.…”

“…Studies examining loneliness, health service use and unmet healthcare needs have found important sex differences 25. More older women report feeling lonely compared with older men 26 27.…”

“…Studies examining loneliness, health service use and unmet healthcare needs have found important sex differences. 25 More older women report feeling lonely compared with older men. 26 27 Compared with men, women often report more physician visits independent of other health-related factors.…”

Social Connectedness Identity and Physical Health: A Multi-Study Investigation

“…(Cacioppo et al, 2006;Hawkley, 2022;Holt-Lunstad et al, 2015;Kennedy et al, 1988;Seeman, 2001;Sirois & Owens, 2021) with articulated pathways for health impacts(Hawkley, 2022;Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010), there remains opportunities to identify potential antecedents for loneliness. Writings on belongingness suggest a connection with loneliness such that a perception of being socially isolated would lead to the pain of loneliness(Baumeister & Leary, 2017…”