A Multi-Method Approach to Understanding Empowerment Processes and Outcomes of Adventure Education Program Experiences

Abstract

Although most providers of adventure education experiences would likely agree that the adventure education process can be "empowering," empirical examination of empowerment is relatively limited in the literature (Angell, 1994;Autry, 2001;Sklar & Gibson, 2004).While theories of empowerment (both processes and outcomes) have been advanced, the context in which empowerment is developed and acted upon, must also be understood (Narayan, 2005;Spreitzer & Doneson, 2005;Zimmerman, 1995). Thus, understanding how participants perceive their adventure experience is critical to understanding how a sense of empowerment is developed. This study takes the perspective that an adventure education experience not only affords opportunities for participants to develop empowerment (process), but also facilitates the development of an empowered state (outcome). Using a mixed method approach, quantitative and qualitative research techniques were used to examine how adventure experiences can serve as a mechanism through

Improvements in Psychological and Occupational Well-Being in a Pragmatic Controlled Trial of a Yoga-Based Program for Professionals

“…Empowerment. The Psychological Empowerment Scale (PES) is a 12-item scale based on the original questionnaire developed by Spreitzer 36 and then modified by Shellman 37 to measure participants' psychological empowerment. The PES displays acceptable levels of reliability and validity.…”

Behavior Change After Adventure Education Courses

“…Overall, while it seems that not all courses are effective, as found by Hattie et al (1997), there is a growing body of literature suggesting that participants are reasonably likely to report positive personal outcomes from adventure programs (Shellman & Ewert, 2010), not just immediately after the course but also months or years later. Apart from improving scientific rigor (Ewert & Sibthorp, 2008), the challenges now include the documentation of observed (rather than self-reported) changes in participants, and description of the breadth of changes that might be experienced, rather than relying on measuring changes in researcher-determined, a priori outcomes (Lobato, 2006).…”

The Youth Adventure Programming Model

“…A multitude of positive outcomes have been attributed to adventure programs. Improvements have been found in self‐concept and attitude (Beames, ; Cook, ; Draper et al., ; Ewert & Yoshino, ; Gillespie & Allen‐Craig, ; Hattie et al., ; Neill & Dias, ; Schell, Cotton, & Luxmoore, ; Shellman & Ewert, ; Wang, Liu, & Kahlid, ). Participants have also demonstrated skill development, especially with regard to communication, leadership, and teamwork (Hattie et al., ; Wang et al., ; Whittington & Mack, ).…”

“…Shellman and Ewert () concluded that it was the sense of achievement participants felt during a U.S. OB program that led to an increase in their psychological empowerment. This appears to come from being challenged, or, as explained by Luckner and Nadler (), being required to push past the “comfort zone” to a “groan zone” (p. 20).…”

“…Enhancements in relational (Draper et al, 2011;Garst et al, 2001;Glass & Benshoff, 2002;Somervell & Lambie, 2009) and behavioral functioning (Carter, Straits, & Hall, 2007;Cook, 2008;Garst et al, 2001;Gillis & Gass, 2010;Lewis, 2013;Wilson & Lipsey, 2000) have also received empirical support. It is notable that positive effects have been found across diverse adult (Clem, Smith, & Richards, 2012;Hattie et al, 1997) and youth populations (Ewert & Yoshino, 2011;Graham & Robinson, 2007;Shellman & Ewert, 2010;Whittington & Mack, 2010;Wilson & Lipsey, 2000). Table 1 provides a more detailed overview of outcomes from evaluations of adventure programs, and we return to these effects further below.…”