A Narrative Review of Alternative Protein Sources: Highlights on Meat, Fish, Egg and Dairy Analogues

Abstract

The research and development of alternatives to meat (including fish) and dairy products for human consumption have been increasing in recent years. In the context of these alternatives, there is a diversity of products such as tofu, tempeh, seitan, pulses, algae, seeds, nuts and insects. Apart from these, some products require new technical processes such as needed by milk drink alternatives, mycoprotein and meat, cheese and fish analogues. The aim of these analogues is to mimic the physical and organoleptic properties of animal origin products through fibrous composition and mix of ingredients from vegetable sources using adequate technology, which allow providing similar texture and flavor. Using a narrative approach to review literature, the objectives of this paper are to systematize the arguments supporting the adoption of meat, eggs and dairy alternatives, to identify the diversity of alternatives to these products on the market, including the related technological processes, and to project the challenges that the food industry may face soon. From a total of 302 scientific papers identified in databases, 186 papers were considered. More research papers on products associated with alternatives to milk were found. Nevertheless, there are products that need more research as analogues to meat and dairy products. A general scheme that brings together the main reasons, resources and challenges that the food industry faces in this promising area of alternatives to meat and dairy products is presented.

Nutritional Quality of Plant-Based Meat and Dairy Imitation Products and Comparison with Animal-Based Counterparts

“…It is worth highlighting that in our study, especially for meat imitations, the nutritional composition was similar across the same manufacturer’s brand, which may indicate that each manufacturer has a single recipe to produce multiple products (data not shown). In addition, the alternative protein and fat sources used for meat and dairy imitations sold in Greece were, almost in all cases, the same as the ones found from other studies [ 3 , 14 , 15 , 33 , 34 ].…”

Developments in Plant Proteins Production for Meat and Fish Analogues

“…For example, a smaller diameter nozzle makes it possible to receive a fine fibrous structure with small diameter fibers, resembling the fish-meat fibers. In turn, high printing speed and low nozzle height worsen the deposition of the printed paste, hence reducing printing precision, and as a result, a product has poor mechanical strength [ 163 , 164 ].…”

“…On the other hand, too many carbohydrates may cause such an increase in viscosity, which impairs printing flowability. As fish-meat products are eaten raw, or after cooking, the printed 3D product should be durable and resistant to thermal cooking processes post-deposition [ 125 , 164 , 165 ].…”

Captive school markets, industry self-regulation, and public-private partnerships: Narratives shaping the development of alternative proteins in the United States, 1965–1982

“…Critical perspectives of alternative protein products often highlight that they are ultraprocessed, such as burgers, sausages, reconstituted slices, and prepared meals (Gehring et al, 2021;Khandpur et al, 2021), and typically less nutritionally balanced or nutritionally complete than animal protein products (Li et al, 2019;Lima et al 2022). Concerns have also been raised about these products representing a corporate 'solution' to consumer interest in more ethical and sustainable food choices, in light of being industrially processed, value-added products (Nestle, 2020).…”