“…Unlike the phenomenological constitutive theory and multiscale modelling, data-driven models do not require parameter calibration and phenomenological assumptions, neither do they request unaffordable computational resources to infer stress responses from strain paths. Although it is not new to apply neural networks to model the stress-strain relations of concrete and sands (Ellis et al, 1995;Ghaboussi et al, 1991;Ghaboussi and Sidarta, 1998), the revolutionary development of deep learning over recent years re-inspires extensive explorations in data-driven constitutive models (Guan et al, 2023;Ibragimova et al, 2022;Ibragimova et al, 2021;Jordan et al, 2020;Tancogne-Dejean et al, 2021). For example, and developed reinforcement learning and game theory-based deep learning models for the constitutive modelling of granular materials.…”