A phylogenetic framework for the evolution of female polymorphism in anoles

Abstract

Female pattern polymorphisms (FPP) are striking, poorly understood, and a major challenge to evolutionary theory. We examined the evolution of FPP in anoline lizards in a phylogenetic context. Accordingly, we used comparative analyses that traced the evolution of female pattern polymorphism over historical time, and overlaid the historical pattern on the biogeographical distribution of current species. Comparative analyses used a maximum likelihood approach with variable rates of trait evolution. We found that, among almost 180 well-described species, 52 exhibited FPP and most of these occurred on the Central American mainland. Pagel's l = 0.644 indicated not only a moderately strong phylogenetic signal in FPP among 162 species with sound estimates of phylogeny, but also independent evolution. Their common ancestor was not polymorphic (0.003% likelihood of FPP), and there were at least 28 gains or losses of FPP during phylogenetic history. The geographical distribution of FPP indicates that, in the Caribbean islands, it has been present for almost 20 million years, and that parallel evolution of FPP has taken place during that time, including independent evolution on Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. Evidence of parallel evolution of FPP in anoles was fairly strong.

Dorsal pattern polymorphism in female Iberian wall lizards: differences in morphology, dorsal coloration, immune response, and reproductive investment

“…Sex‐specific colour polymorphisms associated with different life‐histories have been extensively documented in many different taxa, such as insects, isopods, molluscs, and vertebrates (Oliveira, Taborsky & Brockmann, ). Although the interest in FPP has increased substantially (Svensson et al ., ; Cox & Calsbeek, ; Ortega, López & Martín, ), a bias towards insect studies exists, and vertebrates have received less attention (Paemelaere, Guyer & Dobson, ). Colour polymorphism is a common phenomenon in lizards (Forsman & Shine, ; Sinervo, Svensson & Comendant, ; Vercken et al ., ), comprising a group with the most compelling examples of alternative reproductive strategies linked to different morphs.…”

“…On the other hand, several Anolis species present FPP where females within a population generally show two or three variations in melanin‐based mid‐dorsal patterns (i.e. a vertebral stripe, a diamond pattern or a dull pattern that resembles males; Calsbeek, Bonneaud & Smith, ; Paemelaere et al ., ), whereas males are usually the less patterned sex and are rarely striped. In addition, in the common lizard, Z. vivipara , the frequency of individuals with a reticulated dorsal pattern is higher in males than in females (Lepetz et al ., ).…”

“…Sex-specific colour polymorphisms associated with different lifehistories have been extensively documented in many different taxa, such as insects, isopods, molluscs, and vertebrates (Oliveira, Taborsky & Brockmann, 2008). Although the interest in FPP has increased substantially (Svensson et al, 2009;Cox & Calsbeek, 2011;Ortega, L opez & Mart ın, 2014), a bias towards insect studies exists, and vertebrates have received less attention (Paemelaere, Guyer & Dobson, 2011).…”

Evolution of dorsal pattern variation in Greater AntilleanAnolislizards

“…The ancestral condition is likely to be absence of FPP, and it has been gained more frequently than lost, suggesting that it may be under selective pressures that favour its emergence and maintenance (Paemelaere et al, 2011a). Stamps & Gon (1983) suggested that predation on females is stronger because they are less agile and more nutritious, and FPP may arise as a type of protection against avian predators (Stamps & Gon, 1983).…”

“…female pattern polymorphism, FPP). The latter has been documented in a number of anole species, and several studies have suggested a link between habitat and female polymorphism in dorsal pattern (Cox & Calsbeek, 2011;Paemelaere, Guyer & Dobson, 2011a). Both sexual dimorphism and FPP have evolved multiple times in anoles (Butler, Schoener & Losos, 2000;Butler & Losos, 2002;Butler, Sawyer & Losos, 2007;Paemelaere et al, 2011a), making it an ideal system to test which conditions can influence the evolution of variation in dorsal pattern within species.…”