A Qualitative Analysis of Experiences, Challenges and Coping Strategies of the Namibian Teenage Mothers in the Kavango Regions

Developing the concept of maternal in teenage mothers: a hybrid model

“…Therefore, motherhood is a turning point in the life of a teenager that can cause a fundamental transformation ( Seamark and Lings, 2004 ; Soares and Lopes, 2011 ; Moridi and Aminshokravi, 2018 ; Zainudin, 2019 ; Santos et al, 2021 ). As a result of major physical, mental, social, and cognitive changes during pregnancy and early motherhood, transition to motherhood is considered a stressful process with many responsibilities ( Rentschler, 2003 ; Atuyambe et al, 2005 ; Soares and Lopes, 2011 ; James et al, 2012 ; Anwar and Stanistreet, 2015 ; Kagawa et al, 2017 ; Mangeli et al, 2018a ; Dhaka and Musese, 2019 ; Diamand et al, 2019 ; Franco-Ramírez et al, 2020 ; Gharacheh et al, 2020 ; Govender et al, 2020 ; Malatji et al, 2020 ; Tirgari et al, 2020 ; Kazal et al, 2021 ; Naidoo et al, 2021 ).“Bidirectional effects on life” was another attribute of motherhood in teenage mothers, indicating that motherhood is a process of learning ( Kaye, 2008 ; Klingberg-Allvin et al, 2008 ; Kagawa et al, 2017 ; Santos et al, 2021 ; Erfina et al, 2022 ) and an opportunity to develop, strengthen marriage, and make up for the childhood and adolescence deprivations which can create positive and meaningful paths in life. However, it is a vulnerable period ( Kaye, 2008 ; Margherita et al, 2017 ; Zainudin, 2019 ) and a negative experience for teenage mothers, their children, and society ( Klingberg-Allvin et al, 2008 ; Anwar and Stanistreet, 2015 ; Zainudin, 2019 ); therefore, it can be stated that teenage mothers wilt before blooming ( Gharacheh et al, 2020 ).…”

“…According to the results of the theoretical phase, the antecedents of motherhood in teenage mothers were “the level of received social support,” “reaction to teenage motherhood,” “teenage mother’s characteristics,” and “family structure.” A review of the literature showed that “the level of received social support” was one of the antecedents of motherhood in teenage mothers, which is referred to as “social support” in the literature ( Kagawa et al, 2017 ; Mangeli et al, 2018b ; Dhaka and Musese, 2019 ; Nkwemu et al, 2019 ; Field et al, 2020 ; Gbogbo, 2020 ; Gharacheh et al, 2020 ; Govender et al, 2020 ; Recto and Champion, 2020 ; Tirgari et al, 2020 ; Kazal et al, 2021 ; SmithBattle et al, 2021 ), including family members’ support ( Atuyambe et al, 2005 ; Kaye, 2008 ; James et al, 2012 ; Ngum Chi Watts et al, 2015 ; Kagawa et al, 2017 ; Mangeli et al, 2017 ; Osok et al, 2018 ; Santos et al, 2018 , 2021 ; Amod et al, 2019 ; Campbell and Hart, 2019 ; Diamand et al, 2019 ; Chemutai et al, 2020 ; Gbogbo, 2020 ; Govender et al, 2020 ; Malatji et al, 2020 ; Recto and Champion, 2020 ; Kazal et al, 2021 ; Twintoh et al, 2021 ; Erfina et al, 2022 ), spouse’s support ( Atuyambe et al, 2005 ; Kaye, 2008 ; James et al, 2012 ; Ngum Chi Watts et al, 2015 ; Mangeli et al, 2017 ; Osok et al, 2018 ; Amod et al, 2019 ; Campbell and Hart, 2019 ; Franco-Ramírez et al, 2020 ; Gbogbo, 2020 ; Govender et al, 2020 ; Santos et al, 2021 ; Erfina et al, 2022 ), healthcare providers’ support ( Mangeli et al, 2017 , 2018b ; Campbell and Hart, 2019 ; Recto and Cham...…”

“…Another antecedent of the concept of motherhood was the “teenage mother’s characteristics.” The subcategories that formed this category were the pregnancy status ( Margherita et al, 2017 ; Sychareun et al, 2018 ; Amod et al, 2019 ; Chemutai et al, 2020 ; Franco-Ramírez et al, 2020 ; Gbogbo, 2020 ; Govender et al, 2020 ; Tirgari et al, 2020 ), education level ( Klingberg-Allvin et al, 2008 ; Amod et al, 2019 ; Field et al, 2020 ; Gbogbo, 2020 ; Tirgari et al, 2020 ; Kazal et al, 2021 ; Twintoh et al, 2021 ), and physical and skill capabilities ( Mangeli et al, 2017 , 2018a ; Moridi and Aminshokravi, 2018 ; Osok et al, 2018 ; Erfina et al, 2019 ; Apolot et al, 2020 ; Gharacheh et al, 2020 ; Tirgari et al, 2020 ; Kazal et al, 2021 ; Twintoh et al, 2021 ). “Family structure” included the economic state ( Atuyambe et al, 2005 ; Kagawa et al, 2017 ; Mangeli et al, 2017 ; Osok et al, 2018 ; Santos et al, 2018 ; Amod et al, 2019 ; Dhaka and Musese, 2019 ; Moridi et al, 2019 ; Nkwemu et al, 2019 ; Chemutai et al, 2020 ; Dzotsi et al, 2020 ; Gbogbo, 2020 ; Govender et al, 2020 ; Recto and Champion, 2020 ; Twintoh et al, 2021 ; Wainaina et al, 2021 ) and culture and traditions ( Dehghan-Nayeri and Tajvidi, 2014 ; Mangeli et al, 2017 ; Sámano et al, 2017 ; Osok et al, 2018 ; Sychareun et al, 2018 ; Amod et al, 2019 ; Campbell and Hart, 2019 ; Dhaka and Musese, 2019 ; Nkwemu et al, 2019 ; Sommer et al, 2019 ).…”

“…“Negative psychological consequences” included a feeling of humiliation, shame, fear, stress, anxiety, depression, shock, guilt, anger, suicide thoughts, isolation, and identity confusion ( Rentschler, 2003 ; Atuyambe et al, 2005 ; Kaye, 2008 ; DeVito, 2010 ; Soares and Lopes, 2011 ; James et al, 2012 ; Mangeli et al, 2017 ; Margherita et al, 2017 ; Sámano et al, 2017 ; Osok et al, 2018 ; Santos et al, 2018 , 2021 ; Amod et al, 2019 ; Campbell and Hart, 2019 ; Dhaka and Musese, 2019 ; Diamand et al, 2019 ; Moridi et al, 2019 ; Nkwemu et al, 2019 ; Sommer et al, 2019 ; Apolot et al, 2020 ; Calver, 2020 ; Chemutai et al, 2020 ; Franco-Ramírez et al, 2020 ; Gbogbo, 2020 ; Gharacheh et al, 2020 ; Govender et al, 2020 ; Malatji et al, 2020 ; Recto and Champion, 2020 ; Tirgari et al, 2020 ; Kazal et al, 2021 ; Naidoo et al, 2021 ; Wainaina et al, 2021 ).“Positive psychological consequences” included gaining respect ( Anwar and Stanistreet, 2015 ; Mangeli et al, 2017 ; Calver, 2020 ; Gharacheh et al, 2020 ), feelings of joy ( Klingberg-Allvin et al, 2008 ; Moridi et al, 2019 ; Sommer et al, 2019 ; Chemutai et al, 2020 ; Franco-Ramírez et al, 2020 ), maturity, reduced risky behavior ( Anwar and Stanistreet, 2015 ; Macintosh and Callister, 2015 ; Ngum Chi Watts et al, 2015 ; SmithBattle et al, 2021 ), learning ( Dhaka and Musese, 2019 ; Santos et al, 2021 ; Erfina et al, 2022 ), an opportunity for positive changes ( Seamark and Lings, 2004 ; Ngum Chi Watts et al, 2015 ; …”

Experiences of pregnant and parenting students at a university in Gauteng province

“…Pregnant and parenting students can focus on their schoolwork if they receive financial assistance following the birth of their child to help with basic needs (Assini-Meytin, Mitchel & Lewis 2018 ). Young mothers who receive support experience less stress and burden and this fosters emotional connections, resilience and empowerment (Dhaka & Musese 2019 ). In contrast, this study reflects that the university environment is not supporting pregnant and parenting students.…”