A quantitative and qualitative appraisal of microbial pollution of water by swimmers: a preliminary report

Robinton, Elizabeth D.; Mood, Eric W.

doi:10.1017/s0022172400040808

Cited by 42 publications

(23 citation statements)

References 4 publications

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“…Taken together, the results suggest that most bacteria shedding occurs within the first 15 min of swimming activities or exposure. Despite the differences in design, this study, Smith and Dufour (1993), and Robinton and Mood (1966) reported that S. aureus shed in significant densities per bather at 6.1 × 10 6 , 7.5 × 10 6 , and 1.3 × 10 6 , respectively. The type of water apparently did not impact the degree of shedding as the results from the current study using a marine water were consistent with prior studies which exclusively used freshwater.…”

Section: Large Pool Studymentioning

confidence: 53%

“…Smith and Dufour (1993) used eight demographically mixed adult subjects with individual exposures. Robinton and Mood (1966) used five adult females with individual exposures. Taken together, the results suggest that most bacteria shedding occurs within the first 15 min of swimming activities or exposure.…”

Section: Large Pool Studymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Calderon et al (1991) found that gastrointestinal illnesses observed in swimmers were associated with higher numbers of bathers per day and high densities of S. aureus. Robinton and Mood (1966), Hanes and Fossa (1970), and Smith and Dufour (1993) concluded that high bacterial densities were shed by bathers into the water column, especially S. aureus. Finally, Gerba (2000) and Stewart et al (2002) found that bathers shed pathogenic organisms via body contact and fecal accidents in drinking water reservoirs, and thus bathers increased the risk of water borne illnesses among drinking water consumers.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Quantitative evaluation of bacteria released by bathers in a marine water

et al. 2007

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Enterococci, a common fecal indicator, and Staphylococcus aureus, a common skin pathogen, can be shed by bathers affecting the quality of recreational waters and resulting in possible human health impacts. Due to limited information available concerning human shedding of these microbes, this study focused on estimating the amounts of enterococci and S. aureus shed by bathers directly off their skin and indirectly via sand adhered to skin. Two sets of experiments were conducted at a marine beach located in Miami-Dade County, Florida. The first study, referred to as the "large pool" study, involved 10 volunteers who immersed their bodies in 4700 L during four 15 min cycles with exposure to beach sand in cycles 3 and 4. The "small pool" study involved 10 volunteers who were exposed to beach sand for 30 min before they individually entered a small tub. After each individual was rinsed with off-shore marine water, sand and rinse water were collected and analyzed for enterococci. Results from the "large pool" study showed that bathers shed concentrations of enterococci and S. aureus on the order of 6 × 10 5 and 6 × 10 6 colony forming units (CFU) per person in the first 15 min exposure period, respectively. Significant reductions in the bacteria shed per bather (50% reductions for S. aureus and 40% for enterococci) were observed in the subsequent bathing cycles. The "small pool" study results indicated that the enterococci contribution from sand adhered to skin was small (about 2% of the total) in comparison with the amount shed directly from the bodies of the volunteers. Results indicated that bathers transport significant amounts of enterococci and S. aureus to the water column, and thus human microbial bathing load should be considered as a nonpoint source when designing recreational water quality models.

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Section: Large Pool Studymentioning

confidence: 53%

Section: Large Pool Studymentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Quantitative evaluation of bacteria released by bathers in a marine water

et al. 2007

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“…in less than 15 per cent of samples to be a realistic standard. Robinton & Mood (1966) showed that bathers shed staphylococci most consistently and in the largest number compared with other organisms. Villa & Zaffino (1970) concluded that no single test was adequate but that both coliform organisms and staphylococci should be looked for concurrently in assessing the results of chlorination of pool water samples.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Staphylococci in swimming pool water

Crone¹,

Tee

1974

J. Hyg.

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SUMMARYDuring a period of five years 1192 water samples from swimming pools were examined for staphylococci and 338 for coliform organisms only. Eighty-nine different pools were sampled.Numbers of staphylococci, estimated by the membrane filtration technique did not bear any significant relation to either bathing load or concentration of free chlorine.Wide variation in the staphylococcal count was observed when different parts of a pool were sampled on the same occasion.The only practicable standard for pool samples in relation to staphylococci would appear to be that these organisms should be absent from 100 ml. water when the pool has been out of use during at least ten hours before sampling if filtration and chlorination are adequate.

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“…They are found in nasal membranes, hair follicles, skin, and perinea of warm-blooded animals (3), and their origin in bathing waters is undoubtedly human activity. They were found to be shed by bathers under all conditions of swimming (24) and have been recommended as an index of bather pollution in swimming pools (11,24), since these bacteria are more chlorine resistant than are coliforms.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

87:6490 Occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Israeli coastal water

1987

Deep Sea Research Part B. Oceanographic Literature Review

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The occurrence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureus in seawater from beaches of central Israel was investigated from June 1983 until June 1985. P. aeruginosa was monitored in 652 samples of seawater from 34 beaches, and S. aureus was monitored in 628 samples. P. aeruginosa was found in 44.8% of samples (6.5% with 1 bacterium per 100 ml of water), and S. aureus was recovered from 60.7% of samples (5.3% with 1 organism per 100 ml), compared with 91.6% of samples with total coliforms (TC) and 82.2% with fecal coliforms (FC). The correlation between the presence of P. aeruginosa to that of TC and FC was 99.1 and 98.3%, respectively, while S. aureus was found in 4.3 and 8% of samples where TC and FC, respectively, were absent. Monitoring of S. aureus as a supplementary indicator in populated beaches is recommended because it will add valuable information on the sanitary quality of the seawater.The bacterial quality of recreational waters is assessed by the same indicators recommended for drinking water, namely, total coliforms (TC) and fecal coliforms (FC). These organisms indicate mainly the possibility of fecal contamination, hence the presence of enteric pathogens, which are most important in drinking water. However, infections in recreational waters are not limited to enteric diseases but extend to the skin, ear, nose, and throat, and many microorganisms that cause infection in these organs do not originate in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. Stevenson (28) found that ailments of the upper respiratory tract represented about 50% of illnesses recorded for bathers, while gastrointestinal disturbances were only about 20%. Mujeriego et al. (20) observed that the most frequent complaints recorded for recreational users of coastal water in Spain were skin diseases (morbidity rate of 2%), followed by ear and eye infections (1.5%), while intestinal infections were less than 1%. Foster et al. (13) maintained that the large majority of illnesses that are swimming related are transmitted by contact, not ingestion. They also maintain that the problem of disease spread by contact has been relatively ignored.The following bacterial species have been recommended as supplementary indicators for recreational workers: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, and others. We elected to study the merit of P. aeruginosa and S. aureus as supplementary criteria for Mediterranean water by assessing their occurrence in the coastal water of our region in relation to the conventional bacterial indicators. These species were chosen for two reasons: they are both potential pathogens, and they represent pollution from two different sources, with P. aeruginosa originating in the environment and S. aureus associated with various organs of the body other than the alimentary tract.P. aeruginosa is a ubiquitous saprophite in many normal systems (6) that is widely distributed in soil, water, sewage, the mammalian gut, and plants (16) and which is able to proliferate in distille...

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A quantitative and qualitative appraisal of microbial pollution of water by swimmers: a preliminary report

Cited by 42 publications

References 4 publications

Quantitative evaluation of bacteria released by bathers in a marine water

Quantitative evaluation of bacteria released by bathers in a marine water

Staphylococci in swimming pool water

87:6490 Occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Israeli coastal water

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