A quantum encryption design featuring confusion, diffusion, and mode of operation

Hu, Zixuan; Kais, Sabre

doi:10.1038/s41598-021-03241-8

Cited by 9 publications

(10 citation statements)

References 26 publications

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“…Although CNOT gates operate on qubits, the quantum encryption with CNOT gates behaves the exactly same way as the classical OTP, that means, the key qubits can only be used for one time because of the deterministic measurements in the computational basis. In order to make a key reusable, we may have to use either superposition single qubit gates such as a universal gate [19] or Hadamard or H gate.…”

Section: -Qubit Qppmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…It is clear that efficient implementation of said quantum algorithms will have to wait for relatively long time. Hu and Kais in 2021 proposed a lightweight quantum encryption scheme [19], us-ing a generic unitary gate with N discrete probabilistic amplitudes per qubit for a block of n-qubits. To each qubit of an n-qubit block a unitary gate is applied, followed by a set of CNOT gates to enforce diffusion and confusion capability to cipher quantum states.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Quantum encryption with quantum permutation pad in IBMQ systems

Kuang

Perepechaenko

2022

EPJ Quantum Technol.

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Quantum permutation pad or QPP is a quantum-safe symmetric cryptographic algorithm proposed by Kuang and Bettenburg in 2020. The theoretical foundation of QPP leverages the linear algebraic representations of quantum gates which makes QPP realizable in both, quantum and classical systems. By applying the QPP with 64 of 8-bit permutation gates, holding respective entropy of over 100,000 bits, we accomplished quantum random number distributions digitally over today’s classical internet. The QPP has also been used to create pseudo quantum random numbers and served as a foundation for quantum-safe lightweight block and streaming ciphers. This paper continues to explore numerous applications of QPP, namely, we present an implementation of QPP as a quantum encryption circuit on today’s still noisy quantum computers. With the publicly available 5-qubit IBMQ devices, we demonstrate quantum secure encryption (256 bits of entropy) using 2-qubit QPP with 56 permutation gates, and 3-qubit QPP with 17 permutation gates respectively. Initial qubits of the encryption circuit correspond to the plaintext and after applying quantum encryption operations, cipher qubits are measured with probabilistic distributions, and the results with the highest probability are recorded as cipher bits. The cipher bits are then decrypted with an inverse QPP circuit. The output state plaintext qubits are measured and the most frequent count measurement results are recorded as plaintext bits. This quantum encryption and decryption process clearly demonstrates that QPP quantum implementations works exactly as symmetric encryption and decryption schemes should. The plaintext and ciphertext bits can also be encrypted and decrypted respectively by any classical computing device with the corresponding QPP algorithm as in quantum computers. This work reveals that it is possible to build quantum-secure communications between quantum-to-quantum and quantum-to-classical computers over today’s internet and the future quantum internet.

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Section: -Qubit Qppmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Quantum encryption with quantum permutation pad in IBMQ systems

Kuang

Perepechaenko

2022

EPJ Quantum Technol.

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“…In addition to being useful for defining the uncertainty principle, the information entropies in Equation (15) may also have applications in quantum information. For example, in the context of quantum encryption using quantum states as the ciphertexts, [ 32 ] we may be interested in maximizing the sum

{H_S} + {H_C}

or balancing

{H_S}

and

{H_C}

such that the ciphertexts create maximal difficulty for an adversary Eve.…”

Section: Theory Of the Quantum Condition Spacementioning

confidence: 99%

The Quantum Condition Space

Kais

2022

Adv Quantum Tech

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The fundamental properties of quantum physics are exploited to evaluate event probabilities with projection measurements. Next, to study what events can be specified by quantum methods, the concept of the condition space is introduced, which is found to be the dual space of the classical outcome space of bit strings. Like the classical outcome space generates the quantum state space, the condition space generates the quantum condition space being the central idea of this work. The quantum condition space permits the existence of entangled conditions having no classical equivalent. In addition, the quantum condition space is related to the quantum state space by a Fourier transform guaranteed by the Pontryagin duality, and therefore an entropic uncertainty principle can be defined. The quantum condition space offers a novel perspective of understanding quantum states with the duality picture. Furthermore, the quantum conditions have physical meanings and realizations of their own and thus may be studied for purposes beyond the original motivation of characterizing events for probability evaluation. Finally, the relation between the condition space and quantum circuits provides insights into how quantum states are collectively modified by quantum gates, which may lead to deeper understanding of the complexity of quantum circuits.

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“…Other quantum communication methods proposed in recent years include Quantum secure direct communication without a pre-shared key or QSDC [10,11,12], and a lightweight quantum encryption scheme [13]. The lightweight quantum encryption scheme uses a generic unitary gate in conjunction with the CNOT gates to enforce diffusion and confusion capability to the cipher quantum states.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Quantum Encryption of superposition states with Quantum Permutation Pad in IBM Quantum Computers

Perepechaenko¹,

Kuang²

2023

Preprint

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We present an implementation of Kuang and Bettenburg's Quantum Permutation Pad (QPP) used to encrypt superposition states. The project was conducted on currently available IBM quantum systems using the Qiskit development kit. This work extends previously reported implementation of QPP used to encrypt basis states and demonstrates that application of the QPP scheme is not limited to the encryption of basis states. For this implementation, a pad of 56 2-qubit Permutation matrices was used, providing 256 bits of entropy for the QPP algorithm. An image of a cat was used as the plaintext for this experiment. The plaintext was randomized using a classical XOR function prior to the state preparation procedure. To create corresponding superposition states, we applied a novel operator defined in this paper. These superposition states were then encrypted using QPP, with 2-qubit Permutation Operators, producing superposition ciphertext states. Due to the lack of a quantum channel, we omitted the transmission and executed the decryption procedure on the same IBM quantum system. If a quantum channel existed, the superposition ciphertext states could be transmitted as qubits, and be directly decrypted on a different quantum system. We provide a brief discussion of the security, although the focus of the paper remains on the implementation. Previously we have demonstrated QPP operating in both classical and quantum computers, offering an interesting opportunity to bridge the security gap between classical and quantum systems. This work broadens the applicability of QPP for the encryption of basis states as well as superposition states. We believe that quantum encryption schemes that are not limited to basis states will be integral to a secure quantum internet, to reduce vulnerabilities introduced by using two separate algorithms for secure communication between a quantum and a classical computer.

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A quantum encryption design featuring confusion, diffusion, and mode of operation

Cited by 9 publications

References 26 publications

Quantum encryption with quantum permutation pad in IBMQ systems

Quantum encryption with quantum permutation pad in IBMQ systems

The Quantum Condition Space

Quantum Encryption of superposition states with Quantum Permutation Pad in IBM Quantum Computers

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