A Review: Extracellular Volume in the Brain — The Relevance of the Chloride Space

Db, Cheek; Ab, Holt

doi:10.1203/00006450-197805000-00005

Cited by 13 publications

(3 citation statements)

References 26 publications

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“…In infants and older children it can also be shown, in situations where protein deprivation is the major problem, there is a disproportional deficit of ICW to body length (Cheek et al, 1977). In other words both determinants are reduced for age, but cell mass is particularly reduced.…”

Section: Growth Of Tissuesmentioning

confidence: 98%

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Human Growth — Methods of Approach

Cheek

1977

J Paediatr Child Health

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For die paediatrician the understanding of growth is a cornerstone of his or her discipline and the impact of disease and/or deleterious environmental factors upon the growing infant or child is the focus of attention. It is therefore surprising that the study of growth and nutrition has not received the attention and research that it deserves. Indeed most of the work on growth in international centres has been left to the endocrinologist who may or may not be informed concerning nutrition and indeed may have no experience in the realm of body composition — so necessary in the assessment of tissue growth. Even in units devoted to anthropometry, linear growth and the consideration of weight for age, awareness has not always been apparent concerning the great potential of laboratory methods. Such methods greatly augment relevant information. In the clinic, the measurement of body length, weight and bone age are important for the assessment of growth and represent the initial approach. However as pointed out years ago change in body size for age can produce psychological changes in the child (Drash, Greenberg and Money, 1968). The dwarf pictures his peers as giants while the obese adolescent considers that he is twice his actual size and has hidden feelings of guilt regarding how society views him (or her). These are only details that follow in the wake of the investigation of normal and abnormal growth.

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Section: Growth Of Tissuesmentioning

confidence: 98%

“…A value is found that one would expect for a much younger foetus. (Cheek and Holt, 1977). The mechanism of induction of the "Na pump" remains obscure.…”

Section: Body Function Tissue Function and Cell Metabolismmentioning

confidence: 99%

Human Growth — Methods of Approach

Cheek

1977

J Paediatr Child Health

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“…In a major review of the subject, Cheek and Holt [13] concluded that the distribution of chloride offered the most accurate assessment of the brain's extracellular space. They reported values of 24.8% in the cerebrum and 23.6% in the cerebellum of adult rhesus monkeys.…”

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confidence: 99%

The Blood-Retinal Barrier in the Management of Retinal Disease: EURETINA Award Lecture

Cunha-Vaz

2017

Ophthalmologica

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Retinal diseases are the main causes of blindness in the Western world. Diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration continue to increase in prevalence and as main causes of vision loss. Intravitreal anti-VEGF and steroid injections have raised new expectations for their successful treatment. These agents act by stabilizing the blood-retinal barrier (BRB). Our group defined the BRB by identifying for the first time the tight junctions that unite retinal endothelial cells and are the basis for the inner BRB, an observation later confirmed in retinal pigment epithelial cells and in brain vessels. A major role of active transport processes was also identified. Today, the BRB is understood to play a fundamental role in retinal function in both health and disease. Retinal edema, an ubiquitous manifestation of retinal disease, is directly associated with breakdown of the BRB and with vision loss. In its most common form (i.e., vasogenic edema), due to breakdown of the BRB, Starling's law of capillary filtration may be used to interpret the mechanisms of fluid accumulation in the retina. The main factors involved in the development of retinal edema are BRB permeability, capillary hydrostatic pressure, tissue hydrostatic pressure, tissue osmotic pressure, and plasma osmotic pressure. In the clinical environment, breakdown of the BRB has been identified by fluorescein angiography and vitreous fluorometry, requiring the intravenous administration of fluorescein. An OCT-based method, OCT-Leakage, recently introduced by our group is capable of noninvasively identifying and quantifying sites of alteration of the BRB by mapping areas of lower-than-normal optical reflectivity, thus reflecting changes in the retinal extracellular fluid. We found good correspondence between the location of increased areas of low optical reflectivity identified by OCT-Leakage and the main sites of leakage on fluorescein angiography. Furthermore, with OCT-Leakage the areas of abnormal fluid accumulation can be identified in specific retinal layers, clearly offering more information than previously obtained with fluorescein angiography. OCT angiography has become available, replacing much of the information yielded by fluorescein angiography in a noninvasive manner. However, OCT angiography cannot visualize the leakage, i.e., the alteration of the BRB. OCT-Leakage is able to identify the locations of increases in extracellular fluid in the different layers of the retina. The complementarity of these 2 methods is of potential great interest for the diagnosis and management of several retinal diseases in which the presence and amount of fluid, as a marker of severity and activity, is paramount to treatment and management decisions in clinical practice.

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The brain in experimental portal‐systemic encephalopathy. II. Water and electrolyte changes

Pilbeam

Anderson

Bhathal

1983

The Journal of Pathology

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The water content and amounts of sodium, potassium and chloride were measured in the brains of normal rats, rats with PCA, normal rats fed ammoniated cationic exchange resin, and rats with PCA fed the resin. Plasma electrolytes and ammonia levels were also measured, and sodium and chloride spaces were calculated. Rats with PCA showed increased water content, sodium space and chloride space in the brainstem compared to controls. Rats with PCA fed ammoniated resin showed increased chloride content and Na+:K+ ratio in the brainstem, and an increased chloride space in the brainstem. In these rats the chloride spaces in the cerebrum and cerebellum exceeded the sodium spaces. It is concluded that high circulating ammonia levels can in vivo produce ionic shifts which may interfere with nervous function. It is also concluded that increased cytoplasmic osmolarity produced by ammonium ion-induced stimulation of (Na+ + Ka+) ATPase may result in the appearance of swollen astrocytes in conventional electron micrographs.

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A Review: Extracellular Volume in the Brain — The Relevance of the Chloride Space

Cited by 13 publications

References 26 publications

Human Growth — Methods of Approach

Human Growth — Methods of Approach

The Blood-Retinal Barrier in the Management of Retinal Disease: EURETINA Award Lecture

The brain in experimental portal‐systemic encephalopathy. II. Water and electrolyte changes

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