A review of advances in pixel detectors for experiments with high rate and radiation

Abstract

The large Hadron collider (LHC) experiments ATLAS and CMS have established hybrid pixel detectors as the instrument of choice for particle tracking and vertexing in high rate and radiation environments, as they operate close to the LHC interaction points. With the high luminosity-LHC upgrade now in sight, for which the tracking detectors will be completely replaced, new generations of pixel detectors are being devised. They have to address enormous challenges in terms of data throughput and radiation levels, ionizing and non-ionizing, that harm the sensing and readout parts of pixel detectors alike. Advances in microelectronics and microprocessing technologies now enable large scale detector designs with unprecedented performance in measurement precision (space and time), radiation hard sensors and readout chips, hybridization techniques, lightweight supports, and fully monolithic approaches to meet these challenges. This paper reviews the world-wide effort on these developments.

Depleted fully monolithic CMOS pixel detectors using a column based readout architecture for the ATLAS Inner Tracker upgrade

“…The implementation of a depleted CMOS pixel cell can be generally categorized by the fill factor, i.e. the ratio of the sensing electrode area to the total pixel area [11]. Both large and small fill factor approaches are pursued in this work and implemented as described in the following.…”

“…However, it may suffer from large detector capacitance, e.g. ∼ 400 fF, especially when complex in-pixel logic is needed to implement a fast readout architecture [11,13]. The large detector capacitance will slow down the pre-amplifier and increase the noise, which can only be compensated by increasing the power.…”

Tracking Rydberg atoms with Bose-Einstein condensates

“…Early examples of tracking devices were the bubble chamber [1] and cloud chamber [2], in which an energetic particle leaves an optically visible mark of its passing through interaction with the chamber medium. These devices were later replaced by wire chambers [3] and recently silicon detectors [4].…”

Operation of a double-sided CMOS pixelated detector at a high intensity e+e− particle collider

“…The pixel fake rate of individual PLUME sensors was carefully monitored over the entire Phase 2 period in order to detect potential performance degra- [13,14], generating additional temporal noise. Both effects may increase the pixel fake rate of sensors like MIMOSA-26, that apply a signal threshold to discriminate between pixels registering an ionising particle crossing and those registering only electronic noise.…”