A Review of Bird Deterrents Used in Agriculture

Abstract

Animal intrusion causes significant agricultural losses each year. Wild and domestic animals destroy crops by eating and trampling them, and can pose food safety risks due to the deposition of feces on or near the crops. Birds are one of the most challenging animals to keep out of agricultural fields. Growers try countless methods to deter them, including visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory means. While some of these methods work some of the time, none provide stand-alone protection all the time. Recently there has been interest in developing technology-based solutions to deter nuisance birds in agricultural settings, while others are exploring more natural methods, including falconry. We provide a general overview of bird deterrent methods that are currently in use in agricultural settings, and explore options for novel methods. We found that very few independent scientific studies have been conducted to assess the efficacy of most bird deterrent methods. Ultimately, a multi-tiered approach using integrated pest management techniques will likely be most useful as it can be tailored to meet the needs of individual farmers. KEY WORDS: animal intrusion, birds, bird deterrent, falconry, integrated pest management, nuisance bird Proc. 28 th Vertebr. Pest Conf. (D. M. Woods, Ed.) Published at Univ. of Calif., Davis. 2018. Pp. 218-223. Table 1. Bird deterrents commonly used to protect fresh produce fields from nuisance birds.

Semi‐natural habitat surrounding farms promotes multifunctionality in avian ecosystem services

“…Indeed, our multifunctionality analyses also identified more problematic species (e.g. American Goldfinches) that growers might consider discouraging from visiting their farms via bird deterrents (Rivadeneira et al, 2018).…”

A trait‐based framework for predicting foodborne pathogen risk from wild birds

“…Unfortunately, however, many of the livestock‐associated species studied here move great distances on a daily basis (Billerman et al, 2020), so this might be difficult in practice. Growers may also benefit from focusing monitoring and deterrence efforts in areas near livestock, including measures such as installing raptor perches and nest boxes or using sound cannons (Olimpi et al, 2020; Rivadeneira et al, 2018; Shave et al, 2018). The efficacy of most bird deterrence mechanisms are thought to be low or are untested, but using a combination of methods and rotating their use may help reduce fecal contamination on crops (Olimpi et al, 2020).…”

“…Because wildlife have been implicated in several foodborne illness outbreaks (Angelo et al, 2017; Gardner et al, 2011; Langholz & Jay‐Russel, 2013), growers of fresh produce face increasing market and regulatory pressure to prevent wildlife from entering their farms (Baur et al, 2016; Beretti & Stuart, 2008). Wild birds (hereafter, “birds”), in particular, are of great concern because they cannot be easily excluded (Olimpi et al, 2019; Parker et al, 2012; Rivadeneira et al, 2018). As a result, growers are often forced to turn to economically costly (e.g., bird netting or “noise makers”) and ecologically costly measures (e.g., removal of natural vegetation) to prevent bird intrusion (Beretti & Stuart, 2008; Karp et al, 2015; Olimpi et al, 2019).…”

Effects of multiple targeted repelling measures on the behaviour of individually tracked birds in an area of increasing human–wildlife conflict

“…Animals can pose a threat to the livelihoods of humans, and measures are taken to remove wildlife from areas where it is suspected to cause damage, for example, in agricultural areas or airports (Allan, 2000; Bradbeer et al, 2017; Koehler et al, 1990; Rivadeneira et al, 2018). To repel animals, a wide range of chemical, visual and auditory methods has been tested (Aguilera et al, 1991; Cummings et al, 1991; Dieter et al, 2014; Gilsdorf et al, 2002; Mason et al, 1993; Rivadeneira et al, 2018; Werner & Clark, 2006). In practice, repelling methods need to be simple and cost‐effective, especially when large areas need to be protected.…”