A review of extraction methods and analytical techniques for styrene and its metabolites in biological matrices

Abstract

We reviewed the toxicokinetics of styrene to introduce reliable surrogates for the biological monitoring of styrene workers. We have also discussed the extraction techniques and analytical methods of styrene and its metabolites. Sample preparation is the main bottleneck of the analytical techniques for styrene and its metabolites. Although some microextraction methods have been developed to overcome such disadvantages, some still have limitations such as long extraction time, fiber swelling and breakage, and the cost and the limited lifetime of the fiber. Among all, microextraction by packed sorbents, coupled with HPLC with ultraviolet detection (MEPS‐HPLC‐UV), can be the method of choice for determining styrene metabolites. Few studies investigated unchanged styrene in breath samples. Chemical determination of styrene in exhaled breath provides new insights into organ toxicity in workers with inhalation exposures and can be considered a fascinating tool in risk assessment strategies. Taking blood samples is invasive and less accepted by workers. In contrast, breath analysis is the most attractive method for workers because breath samples are easy to collect and non‐invasive, and sample collection does not require the transfer of workers to health facilities. Therefore, developing selective and sensitive methods for determining styrene in breath samples is recommended for future studies.

Electrochemical and Optical Sensors for the Detection of Chemical Carcinogens Causing Leukemia

“…Styrene is released into the atmosphere during the production and combustion of styrene polymers, lamination, printing, and photocopying. It is present in car exhaust fumes and cigarette smoke [ 97 , 100 ], and can be present in tap water and river water [ 101 ]. Styrene oligomers, by-products of the polymerization process, can migrate from polystyrene food packaging into food [ 102 ].…”

“…Styrene enters the human body mainly in the process of inhalation through the respiratory tract; additionally, small amounts of styrene penetrate the body through the skin, and they can be consumed by humans together with food and drink [ 100 ]. The main metabolic pathway of absorbed styrene involves its oxidation by monooxygenases to styrene-7,8-oxide [ 98 ].…”

NMR Untargeted and HPLC-MS/MS Targeted Metabolomic Approaches for Evaluating Styrene Exposure in the Urine of Shipyard Workers

“…In previous studies, the concentrations of styrene and its metabolites have been assessed in biological matrices by means of chromatographic techniques coupled with ultraviolet detection or mass spectrometry [ 27 , 28 , 29 ].…”

Microextraction techniques for occupational biological monitoring: Basic principles, current applications and future perspectives

“…In biological monitoring, the level of an indicator is measured in the biological samples obtained from chemical‐exposed workers. An indicator can be the chemical itself or its metabolite(s) [American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 2023; Rahimian & Soleimani, 2022; Soleimani, 2020]. Therefore, developing valid extraction methods and analytical techniques for the determination of these indicators plays a critical role in the management of chemical‐related risks which threaten workers’ health.…”

“…Microextraction techniques (METs) provide these advantages and open new routes to develop more sophisticated and robust sample preparation methods and analysis (He & Concheiro‐Guisan, 2019; Jimenez‐Skrzypek et al, 2022; Silva et al, 2014). Several METs have been developed for the determination of indicators for occupational biological monitoring (OBM) (Rahimian & Soleimani, 2022; Soleimani, 2020; Soleimani et al, 2017a, 2017b; Soleimani et al, 2018). While METs have been widely used in forensic toxicology (He & Concheiro‐Guisan, 2019), pharmaceutical (Jimenez‐Skrzypek et al, 2022; Moein, Said, et al, 2014), food and environmental (Carasek et al, 2018; Merkle et al, 2015) analysis, they are less often applied in OBM.…”