A review of foodborne Toxoplasma gondii with a special focus on its prevalence in Pakistan from 2000 to 2022

Abstract

Third-world countries have a higher prevalence of food-related disorders than developed nations. Millions of people in underdeveloped countries are seriously at risk from the potential water supply contamination with protozoan diseases. Toxoplasma gondii is one of the important protozoans causing diseases in livestock and humans. Despite the standard tests for diagnosing this parasite and different treatment methods, the spread of these parasites is uncontrollable and rising every year due to other management disorders. In this review, we summarize etiopathogenesis and prevalence in Pakistan. We looked for papers reporting the seroprevalence of T. gondii in people and animals between 2000 and 2022 in different databases: PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Web of Science. Data on the seroprevalence of T. gondii in Pakistan's domestic animals (sheep and goats, horses, donkeys, mules, cattle, and buffaloes), domestic pets (cats and dogs), poultry and rodents, and humans were gathered. According to the findings, sheep had an estimated pooled seroprevalence of T. gondii that varied from 11.20 to 26.50 %, and goats from 24.50 to 38.40%. Whereas in buffalo the opposite trend was followed, and the prevalence was observed is 0% in 2022, in horses, donkeys, and mules, only one study was reported according to which a high prevalence was observed in mules (28.60%) followed by donkeys (23.50%) and horses (23.50%), in cats 38.5% prevalence was observed in a recent study and in dogs 28.43% observed, and in humans from 22 to 60%. Human beings are found to be the most affected species showing high prevalence among all. According to our findings, animals and pets not only serve as a reservoir for the parasite but also serve as a direct route for human infection with T. gondii. The diagnostic techniques used in the observed studies were mostly serological testing whereas only a few studies have only been observed with molecular testing. To know the exact pattern of the disease for its control, the trend of molecular and advanced testing should be adopted as it is more reliable. Moreover, to decrease the transmission chances of T. gondii to humans, it is crucial to manage T. gondii infections in non-human species.

Case report: Urbanized non-human primates as sentinels for human zoonotic diseases: a case of acute fatal toxoplasmosis in a free-ranging marmoset in coinfection with yellow fever virus

“…T. gondii is considered one of the most successful parasites worldwide, infecting around a third of the global population due to its ability to affect humans and a variety of warm-blooded animals, which is considered a pillar in successful protozoan dissemination and survival ( 32 ). Toxoplasmosis is also among the main foodborne parasitic diseases in the US and Europe ( 31 , 32 ) and is a global public health concern, especially in developing countries ( 33 , 34 ). In similar conditions observed in the marmoset, anthropized areas may play a critical role in the T. gondii spread from domestic cats to wildlife where they may come into contact ( 35 ).…”

Microfluidic Biosensor Based on Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2) Modified Thin-Core Microfiber for Immune Detection of Toxoplasma gondii

“…In order to prevent infection of T. gondii in a timely and accurate manner and to protect the safety of life and property, it is urgent to study the detection method of T. gondii. The detection of T. gondii through a microscope is less sensitive and requires more expertise, while the method of inoculation is time-consuming (usually taking several weeks) and is expensive to test [3,4]. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is convenient, repeatable, and easy to automate.…”