A Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling: Technologies, Sustainability, and Open Issues

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are a widely used energy storage technology as they possess high energy density and are characterized by the reversible intercalation/deintercalation of Li ions between electrodes. The rapid development of LIBs has led to increased production efficiency and lower costs for manufacturers, resulting in a growing demand for batteries and their application across various industries, particularly in different types of vehicles. In order to meet the demand for LIBs while minimizing climate-impacting emissions, the reuse, recycling, and repurposing of LIBs is a critical step toward achieving a sustainable battery economy. This paper provides a comprehensive review of lithium-ion battery recycling, covering topics such as current recycling technologies, technological advancements, policy gaps, design strategies, funding for pilot projects, and a comprehensive strategy for battery recycling. Additionally, this paper emphasizes the challenges associated with developing LIB recycling and the opportunities arising from these challenges, such as the potential for innovation and the creation of a more sustainable and circular economy. The environmental implications of LIB recycling are also evaluated with methodologies able to provide a sustainability analysis of the selected technology. This paper aims to enhance the comprehension of these trade-offs and encourage discussion on determining the “best” recycling route when targets are in conflict.

Environmental Aspects and Recycling of Solid-State Batteries: A Comprehensive Review

“…The European Union has recognized the need to strengthen the functioning of the internal market and promote a safe, circular, and sustainable value chain for all batteries, including those used in electric vehicles [86]. In Brazil, automotive batteries have been recycled for several years, while the recycling of other types of batteries is just starting [87].…”

Sustainable Management of Rechargeable Batteries Used in Electric Vehicles

“…On the other hand, Rosenberg et al [8] and Picatoste et al [14] state that using both recycling technologies, pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy, for the entire volume of end-of-life batteries has the potential to achieve the lowest overall environmental impacts within defined limits. Finally, in their study, Zanoletti et al [18] explore various methods for recycling lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), identifying hydrometallurgy and solvo-metallurgy as standout approaches due to their unique benefits and challenges. Hydrometallurgy is praised for its efficiency in energy use and its ability to purify metals to a high degree, effectively reducing the environmental impact.…”

The Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries LiCoO2 Cathode: Balancing Sustainability and Efficiency

“…Recycling of waste LIBs can address both these problems as it enables for the correct handling of such waste, avoiding disposal in landfills and providing a path for the recovery of precious raw materials that can be reintroduced on the market of LIB production, relieving the pressure on the exploitation of primary geological reserves of such critical raw materials (see Figure for a general scheme). − Recycling of waste LIBs at the industrial level is at its infancy and not systematically implemented at the global level. Very recently, the EU Parliament approved a new regulation addressing the batteries and batteries’ waste, and it is one of the first examples worldwide, even if it must be considered as a fast-moving scenario. ,− , The industrial methods exploit simple but energy demanding and polluting processes (pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy), enabling the recovery of a small fraction of the different metals of interest.…”