A Review of Men's Health and Masculinity

Abstract

How men seek help and use health care services are important components of their physical and mental health. Abstract: Men's health is a new and evolving area of specialty that goes beyond men's cancers and sexual activities. Men's health in the 21st century incorporates a broader conceptualization of health, health behaviors, and lifestyle choices. This new focus results from the fact that men continue to lag behind women in life expectancy and in health care use, a situation that is worse for minority men. Understanding how gender socialization and masculine ideology affects men's health is an important step toward providing effective care for men. In this article, the authors review these areas and then discuss each of the top actual causes of death for men: tobacco use, poor diet, alcohol use, and physical inactivity. They then discuss the important issue of steroid use among men. Throughout the review, the authors highlight racial and ethnic differences in health behaviors. Furthermore, they provide empirically supported clinical implications to assist clinicians who see men with health concerns in their practices. Finally, they offer suggestions for creating ways to include men in the health care system in hopes of improving their use.A lthough there are 86 million men 18 to 65 years old in the United States, constituting 31% of the entire population, the health of men is generally worse than that of women. 1 Men's life expectancy continues to lag behind women's despite the historical fact that much medical research has focused on men in design, measurement, and outcomes. In fact, in 1920, men were dying 1 year before women; by 2005, the life expectancy gender gap had grown to 5.2 years. 2 According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), men are at greater risk of death in every age group compared with women, with 1.6 times more mortality for all causes, 1.8 times for diseases of the heart, 1.4 times for cancers, and 2.4 times for accidents. 3 Men's presence in the health care system is noticeably less than women's; women attend doctor visits for annual or preventive services (ie, nonillness related) at a rate 100% higher than men, even after controlling for age and pregnancy-related visits. 4 Thirty-three percent of men have no regular physician, and almost a quarter of all men have not seen a physician in the past year. 5 Clearly, there is much work to be done to improve men's health and in the development of men's health as an area of expertise.

Class‐based masculinity, cardiovascular health and rehabilitation

“…, Garfield et al . ). Our findings are consistent with previous studies on men's health that support community and workplace health services with flexible schedules (evening and weekends) and advocate for integrated health care services (Robertson et al .…”

“…Health disparities between men and women have been explained by biological and social determinants, and, with no single explanation for all causes of death, gender norms and gender socialisation are considered major contributing factors (Garfield et al . ). In a position paper on men's health promotion, Robertson et al .…”

The Men's Center Approach: Ecological Interventions for College Men's Health

“…The task of engaging men in counseling is difficult considering college men's reluctance to seek help and their propensity to hold negative attitudes about mental health services (Groeschel, Wester, & Sedivy, 2010). As a result, novel approaches emphasize "male-friendly" language and practices, reframing counseling as "consultation" and a "team effort," and focusing on men's strengths instead of deficits (Brooks, 2010;Garfield, Isacco, & Rogers, 2008;Isacco, Talovic, Chromik, & Yallum, Shen-Miller et al 2013;Kiselica & Englar-Carlson, 2010;Kiselica et al, 2008). These scholars have made important inroads into the treatment of men, yet their focus remains largely on the individual.…”

Masculinity, physical health, and perceived barriers to help-seeking||Masculinity, physical health, and perceived barriers to help-seeking

“…(Vogel et al, 2006) as well as qualitative research on men's narratives regarding help-seeking behaviors for psychological concerns (Mahalik, Good, & Englar-Carlson, 2003 Control subscales. Socioeconomic status has been documented as a key construct in epidemiological research on men's help-seeking for psychological and physical concerns (Garfield et al, 2008). Given the connection between SES and concrete barriers to accessing care, this result can likely best be conceptualized within the Health Belief Model.…”

“…With regards to eating habits, men have been shown to engage in less healthy diet and nutrition practices across their lifespan ranging from college-aged students (Davy, Benes, & Driskell, 2006) to the elderly (Baker & Wardle, 2003). Garfield, Isacco, and Rogers (2008), in their review of men's health and masculinity, reported that men who endorse more traditional masculine ideologies tend to (a) eat larger portions, (b) be inattentive to nutritional labels, (c) ignore nutritional information when making food choices, (d) not eat as much of foods that are identified as healthy (e.g., fruits and vegetables), and (e) focus on proteins and vitamins instead of fat and calories. When we consider mainstream media sources, fast food and frozen food companies have marketed "man-sized meals," indicating that larger-than-life food portions are considered more appropriate for their male customers than smaller portions or healthier options.…”