A review of metal-induced effects on vitamins A, E and D3 in birds

Blood Toxic Elements and Effects on Plasma Vitamins and Carotenoids in Two Wild Bird Species: Turdus merula and Columba livia

“…Avifauna is a group of vertebrates that have historically suffered the adverse effects of contaminants [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Metalloids and metals including arsenic (As), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and cadmium (Cd) are known to be toxic and have been ranked in the first positions within the Substance Priority List by the Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) [ 6 ].…”

“…Vitamins and carotenoids are dietary nutrients with a wide range of physiological functions in the antioxidant and immune systems, vision, reproduction, and growth [ 5 ]. Carotenoids are essential for immune function, coloration, and breeding; some carotenoids are precursors of vitamin A [ 19 ] and their role as antioxidants is still under debate [ 20 , 21 ].…”

“…Carotenoids are essential for immune function, coloration, and breeding; some carotenoids are precursors of vitamin A [ 19 ] and their role as antioxidants is still under debate [ 20 , 21 ]. Retinol is the active form of vitamin A and plays critical roles in antioxidant and immune functions, as well as cell differentiation, proliferation, and growth [ 5 , 22 , 23 ]. Regarding α-Tocopherol, it is the major form of vitamin E and has a potent role as antioxidant, protecting membranes from lipid peroxidation, together with other functions (e.g., anti-inflammatory properties, stimulation of immune responses, and phagocytic functions) [ 5 , 24 , 25 ].…”

“…Retinol is the active form of vitamin A and plays critical roles in antioxidant and immune functions, as well as cell differentiation, proliferation, and growth [ 5 , 22 , 23 ]. Regarding α-Tocopherol, it is the major form of vitamin E and has a potent role as antioxidant, protecting membranes from lipid peroxidation, together with other functions (e.g., anti-inflammatory properties, stimulation of immune responses, and phagocytic functions) [ 5 , 24 , 25 ]. Toxic-element (As, Pb, Cd, and Hg)-driven effects on these vitamins in birds have been reported in different studies, as compiled in a recent review [ 5 ].…”

“…Regarding α-Tocopherol, it is the major form of vitamin E and has a potent role as antioxidant, protecting membranes from lipid peroxidation, together with other functions (e.g., anti-inflammatory properties, stimulation of immune responses, and phagocytic functions) [ 5 , 24 , 25 ]. Toxic-element (As, Pb, Cd, and Hg)-driven effects on these vitamins in birds have been reported in different studies, as compiled in a recent review [ 5 ]. However, discrepancies have been found in the literature, and further studies are highly recommended to better understand the relation between exposure to metals and vitamin concentrations in different species, considering factors such as diet, age, and gender [ 5 ].…”