A Review of Psychological Stress among Students and Its Assessment Using Salivary Biomarkers

Abstract

Numerous psychoneuroimmune factors participate in complex bodily reactions to psychological stress, and some of them can be easily and non-invasively measured in saliva (cortisol, alpha-amylase, proinflammatory cytokines). Cortisol plays a crucial role in the stress response; thus, stressful events (academic examinations, cardiac surgery, dental procedures) are accompanied by an increase in cortisol levels. (A correlation between cortisol blood levels and salivary values has already been confirmed, particularly during stress). Academic stress is defined as everyday stress among students that has an impact on aspects of their psychological and physiological well-being. For example, exams are considered one of the most acute stressful experiences for students. The strength of the association between academic self-efficacy, psychological stress, and anxiety depends on a variety of factors: the type of academic challenge (e.g., oral exam), the presence of an audience, etc. Higher stress levels were predominantly recorded among younger students, primarily regarding their academic tasks and concerns (grades, exams, competing with peers for grades, fear of failing the academic year, etc.). The measurement of stress levels during academic stress can improve our understanding of the character and influence of stressful events in populations of students, preventing adverse reactions to long-term stress, such as a decreased immune response and increased anxiety.

Perceived Stress, Salivary Cortisol, and Temperament Traits among Students of Dental Medicine: A Prospective and Interventional Study

“…If they can be identified early on in their studies, they can be introduced to healthy coping methods before the possible onset of PNE changes that contribute to the development of stress-associated conditions (e.g., cardiovascular, autoimmune, and other diseases) [81][82][83][84]. According to the literature data so far, this population is susceptible to stress even after graduation, and therefore it is important to educate them on how to reduce the impact of stress on the body [21]. Since stress affects immune changes and is an important risk factor for many pathological conditions, reducing stress would not only benefit dental and medical students and professionals but also the entire communities they serve by creating a healthier, more stable healthcare system.…”

“…In addition, it is assumed that salivary cortisol, during stress, is influenced (at least partially) by stable factors such as character traits, although the results from previous studies are not uniform [13,[17][18][19]. Numerous studies have suggested that there are benefits to using cortisol as a salivary biomarker and as an indicator of AS [20,21]. Significantly higher cortisol values were measured in students just before and during exam periods, while significantly reduced values were found after exam periods [22][23][24].…”

Possible Risk Factors for Dental Fear and Anxiety in Children Who Suffered Traumatic Dental Injury

“…Furthermore, while this article presents numerous contributing factors in the dental environment that have been studied in the literature and provides insight into the possible explanations for the influence of these factors in paediatric patients, there are some factors that have not been examined in the current study, such as previous medical experience, personality traits, genetics, socio-demographics, parental DFA, stress, parents’ satisfaction, dental neglect, and different psychosocial factors that could also affect children’s DFA [ 18 , 95 , 96 ]. Girls’ higher perception of stress and cognitive styles may increase their risk of developing psychological disorders and anxiety; therefore, salivary biomarkers could be used to measure stress levels, potentially aiding in the diagnosis of DFA [ 97 ]. Moreover, understanding parent satisfaction is crucial for providing effective dental care, as satisfied parents are more likely to attend to their child’s dental care, ensuring proper oral hygiene implementation [ 98 ].…”

Psychological and Neurophysiological Screening Investigation of the Collective and Personal Stress Resilience

“…are accompanied by an increase in cortisol levels. Such data can form the basis for the possible implementation of further anti-stress measures in practice and can lead to a better organization of stress resistance, which will allow, for example, students to study more efficiently or better cope with the requirements of university work [ 19 ].…”