A Review on Alaria alata, Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis spp. in Mammalian Game Meat Consumed in Europe: Epidemiology, Risk Management and Future Directions

Abstract

Game meat is increasingly appreciated and consumed in Europe, also due to the growing population of wild ungulates. In addition to interesting nutritional properties and market opportunities, game meat is characterized by some specific public health issues. This review focuses on the etiology, epidemiology, public health aspects and risk management along the supply chain, including parasite detection at slaughtering and inactivation in meat, of three selected foodborne parasitic hazards (Alaria alata, Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis spp.) in the main mammalian game meat species in the EU: wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer (Dama dama), Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), moose (Alces alces), hare (Lepus europaeus) and wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The presented data point out the main issues, and knowledge gaps as well as the potential for improved control in order to contribute to the risk analysis process. To pursue an effective management of these parasitic zoonoses, awareness raising should involve all figures in the supply chain, including hunters, restaurateurs and consumers. Human behaviour and the lack of knowledge regarding meat borne parasitic zoonoses and the health risks they pose seem to be the most important factors responsible for human infections. However, detection methods, starting from the sampling procedure, should be further developed and standardized in order to improve the collection of accurate and up-to-date epidemiological data.

Retrospective Molecular Survey on Bacterial and Protozoan Abortive Agents in Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus) from Central Italy

“…An association between positivity to serological testing and PCR for T. gondii was in fact found when 50 g of heart muscle was employed [ 48 ]. Furthermore, detection methods for T. gondii infections should be further standardized to dispose of reliable epidemiological data [ 49 ]. However, the prevalence of the parasite in cervids is reported as very high, and any part of the carcasses should not be consumed raw, including the spleen [ 50 ], indicating that the tissue is considered a suitable site for T. gondii.…”

Revealing the Prevalence of Toxoplasma in Sierra Morena’s Wild Boar: An ELISA-Based Study Using Meat Juice

“…The lack of a perfect technique (with 100% specificity and 100% sensitivity) for the detection of T. gondii is well-known [ 54 ]. However, there are differences and variations in both the technique and the type of sample and method employed [ 55 ]. In our study, we chose to use meat juice as the sample because the origin of the animal prevented us from using blood or plasma; meat juice was the best available option.…”

Treatments of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Toxoplasma gondii with Selenium Nanoparticles

“…Consequently, antibodies to T. gondii have been identified in 0 to 100% of persons in various adult human populations throughout the last three decades [ 131 ]. When evaluating seroprevalence statistics for T. gondii infections, keep in mind that the numerous serological techniques utilized to help collect this data are not uniform [ 132 ]. The Sabin–Feldman dye test, which is still regarded the “global standard” for detecting T. gondii antibodies in people, is time-consuming and has the drawback of requiring a constant supply of live parasites [ 133 ].…”