A Review on Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Malaysia Case Study

Abstract

Fungi are distributed worldwide and can be found in various foods and feedstuffs from almost every part of the world. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by some fungal species and may impose food safety risks to human health. Among all mycotoxins, aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes, deoxynivalenol (DON and T-2 toxin), zearalenone (ZEN), and fumonisins (FMN) have received much attention due to high frequency and severe health effects in humans and animals. Malaysia has heavy rainfall throughout the year, high temperatures (28 to 31• C), and high relative humidity (70% to 80% during wet seasons). Stored crops under such conditions can easily be contaminated by mycotoxin-producing fungi. The most important mycotoxins in Malaysian foods are AFs, OTA, DON, ZEN, and FMN that can be found in peanuts, cereal grains, cocoa beans, and spices. AFs have been reported to occur in several cereal grains, feeds, nuts, and nut products consumed in Malaysia. Spices, oilseeds, milk, eggs, and herbal medicines have been reported to be contaminated with AFs (lower than the Malaysian acceptable level of 35 ng/g for total AFs). OTA, a possible human carcinogen, was reported in cereal grains, nuts, and spices in Malaysian market. ZEN was detected in Malaysian rice, oat, barley, maize meal, and wheat at different levels. DON contamination, although at low levels, was reported in rice, maize, barley, oat, wheat, and wheat-based products in Malaysia. FMN was reported in feed and some cereal grains consumed in Malaysia. Since some food commodities are more susceptible than others to fungal growth and mycotoxin contamination, more stringent prevention and control methods are required.

Leaching of Cyanogens and Mycotoxins from Cultivated Cassava into Agricultural Soil: Effects on Groundwater Quality

“…Observations reported by Wade et al [73] on cassava waste in ish, i.e., in the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), revealed that some cyanogens caused oedema, gill lamellae telangiectasia, gill enlargement, formation of vacuoles and liver cell deterioration. Similar health outcomes for humans and animals observed in acute mycotoxin exposure, including ingestion, were inter alia, weight loss, internal organ bleeding, respiratory diseases (asthma, pneumonia), diarrhoea, liver and kidney cancer and skin irritation [74][75][76]. Therefore, a large-scale propagation of agricultural produce with cyanogens, which is susceptible to a high concentration of spoilage organisms, particularly mycotoxin producers, requires continuous monitoring to ascertain its quality.…”

Genotoxic Effects of Mycotoxins: Review

“…Buğday, arpa, yulaf, çavdar, mısır, soya fasulyesi ve meyveler Fusarium türleri bakımından yüksek kontaminasyon riski taşıyan tarım ürünleridir. 19 1940'lı yıllarda trikotesenler ile kontamine buğdayların tüketimiyle binlerce insanın ölümüyle sonuçlanan ve lökositlerdeki belirgin azalma ile karakterize edilen "Alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA)" mikotoksikozuna neden olduğu bilinmektedir. 99 Trikotesenler ile ilgili dikkat çekici diğer bir önemli özellik, immünsüpresif etkilerinden dolayı biyolojik silah olarak da kullanılabilmeleridir.…”

“…[15][16][17][18] Mikotoksinler; fındık, kurutulmuş meyve, kahve, baharat, tohum, mısır, buğday gibi ürün-lerde yaygın olarak bulunabildiği gibi yemlerde ve süt, peynir, et gibi hayvansal ürünlerde de bulunabilmektedir. 19 Gıdalarda en çok bulunan mikotoksinler arasında başlıca; Aspergillus türleri tarafın-dan üretilen aflatoksin (AF) ler, Aspergillus ve Penicillium tarafından üretilen okratoksinler, Fusarium türleri tarafından üretilen fusarium, zearalenon, trikotesenler ve yeni keşfedilen "emerging" mikotoksinler (fusaproliferin, moliniform, böuve-rin, enniatin), Penicillium ve Aspergillus tarafın-dan üretilen patulin (PAT), Alternaria türleri tarafından üretilen altenuen, alternariol, alternariol metil eter, altertoksin, tenazonik asit, Claviceps tarafından üretilen ergot alkaloidleri yer almaktadır. 20,21 Mikotoksinlere maruziyet genellikle, kontamine yem ve gıdaların tüketilmesi yoluyladır.…”

A Validated UPLC-MS/MS Multi-mycotoxin Method for Nuts and Cereals for the Official Control in Cyprus within the EU Requirements

“…Consumption of food and feed contaminated with mycotoxins can cause severe effects on animal and human health, from allergic responses to cancer and death. Due to their high occurrence, the most common and widely investigated mycotoxins in food and feed, regulated by the European Union legislation [3,4] are: Aflatoxins (AFB 1 , AFB 2 , AFG 1 , AFG 2 ), Ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes [Deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 and HT-2 toxins], Fumonisins (FB 1 , FB 2 ) and Zearalenone (ZON) [5][6][7]. AFs are primarily produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus and are among the most carcinogenic substances known.…”

“…Trichothecenes are related with fatal and chronic toxicoses. They inhibit DNA and protein synthesis, and they are responsible for outbreaks of acute diseases of the digestive system such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness and headache [1,7].…”