A Review on the Transport-Chemo-Mechanical Behavior in Concrete under External Sulfate Attack

Abstract

Cementitious concrete structures serving in sulfate environments suffer from serious durability challenges caused by chemical sulfate attacks (CSA), which lead to the volume expansion, cracking, and spalling of concrete and the early failure of structures. CSA on concrete involves the behaviors of ion transport, chemical reactions, the crystallization of reaction products, microstructural damage to the cement matrix, and the macroscopic deterioration of concrete, namely the transport-chemo-mechanical behaviors. This paper first introduces the reaction products, such as gypsum, ettringite, brucite, and thaumasite, between sulfate and concrete under different environmental conditions and their formation mechanism. Then, aiming at the ettringite type CSA, the theories of volume increase and crystallization pressure are elaborated to explain it-induced concrete degradation. Additionally, the crystallization pressure theory is used to describe the cracking behavior in the microstructure slurry caused by the ettringite crystal filling pore. Finally, a series of transport-chemo-mechanical models for ettringite type CSA are displaced module by module. It includes the sulfate diffusion-reaction model, the free expansion of concrete, and equivalent expansive force in concrete related to the reaction behavior: the model for chemo-mechanical behavior in concrete caused by CSA. These models can be used to analyze the distribution of sulfate ions and the reaction product content, expansive stress and strain in the concrete, and the cracking and spalling degree of the concrete, which is beneficial to evaluate the durability of concrete structures serving permanently in a sulfate environment.

New Methods for Assessing External Sulfate Attack on Cement-Based Specimens

“…In ESA, pores or cracks are partially or completely filled by expanding products (ettringite, gypsum), resulting in changes in the microstructure, microcracking, and loss of strength [12]. The main cause of microstructural changes in cementitious materials exposed to ESA is the formation of ettringite and/or gypsum within capillary pores and smaller gel pores [10,13,14].…”

Effect of Graphene Oxide Nanomaterials on the Durability of Concrete: A Review on Mechanisms, Provisions, Challenges, and Future Prospects

“…Sulphate-resisting ASTM C 150 Type V cement, despite having some resistance to sulphate degradation, is still vulnerable to sulphate attacks [79]. However, there are several factors that have a direct relationship to the rate and intensity of sulphate attacks [54,80,81].…”