“…Bridge displacement is a critical index for SHM (Brownjohn et al, 2017) and can be measured by displacement transducers, such as linear variable differential transformers (Boothby et al, 1998), global positioning systems (GPS; Le & Nishio, 2019;Msaewe et al, 2021;Nakamura, 2000), potentiometric displacement sensors (Guo et al, 2015), dial gauges (Bidez et al, 1986), and optic fiber sensors (Hampshire & Adeli, 2000). Additionally, displacement can be indirectly estimated through methods such as strain (Oh et al, 2017), double integration of acceleration data (Bajwa et al, 2020;Bunce et al, 2023;K. Feng et al, 2023;F.…”