“…Heterotrimeric G-proteins (G αβγ ) act as signal transducers, enabling the flow of information from the extracellular region to the intracellular downstream effector proteins that control various physiological processes. (1, 2) The process of signal transduction begins upstream, where small molecular agonists, hormones, peptides, light, and other chemical and physical stimuli are received by transmembrane receptor proteins,(3) such as G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs),(4, 5) ion channels,(6, 7) and enzyme-linked receptors. (8, 9) G-protein-mediated signaling induced by GPCRs is implicated in almost all physiological processes, including vision, gustation, olfaction, immune system regulation, and homeostasis maintenance.…”