“…Next, we briefly describe mechanisms (i), (ii) and (iii). In mechanism (i), it is hypothesised that the energy is transferred from the mean flow U ( y, z, t) to the fluctuating flow through modal instability in the form of strong inflectional variations in the spanwise direction (Hamilton et al 1995;Waleffe 1997;Karp & Cohen 2017) or wall-normal direction (Chini et al 2017;Montemuro et al 2020), corrugated vortex sheets (Kawahara et al 2003), or intense localised patches of low-momentum fluid (Andersson et al 2001;Hack & Moin 2018). These exponential instabilities are markedly robust at all times (Lozano-Durán, Karp & Constantinou 2018) and, therefore, their excitation has been proposed to be the mechanism that replenishes the perturbation energy of the turbulent flow (Hamilton et al 1995;Waleffe 1997;Andersson et al 2001;Kawahara et al 2003;Marquillie et al 2011;Hack & Zaki 2014;Hack & Moin 2018).…”