A Short History of the Phoenicians

Investigating Plant Micro-Remains Embedded in Dental Calculus of the Phoenician Inhabitants of Motya (Sicily, Italy)

“…Finally, Curcuma sp., as well as being applied for medicinal purposes, including treatment of oral diseases, was used from ancient times in cosmetics, fabric coloring, and cooking [ 16 , 109 ]. Historical literature states that Phoenicians commonly used various types of plant species, including mushrooms (e.g., truffles), fruits (e.g., dates, figs, pomegranates, almonds, and limes), and plant underground storage organs (e.g., roots, rhizomes, and bulbs), which corroborated our archaeobotanical records [ 74 ]. In addition, interesting preliminary data obtained from carpological assemblage of Motya revealed caryopses of barley and wheat, pulses, as well as seeds and pedicels of V. vinifera .…”

“…Indeed, the Phoenician diet, both in the mother country and in the colonies, was based on these crops, as confirmed by carpological remains from archaeological sites of Tell el-Burak in Lebanon, Duos Nuraghes in Sardinia, and Utica in North Africa [ 28 , 72 , 73 ]. Barley and wheat, mixed with pulses, were usually consumed as a porridge, or in the form of bread and flat cakes [ 74 ]. In Motya’s case, Phoenicians established contact with the autochthonous populations inhabiting the rich and fertile Sicilian hinterland, such as the Elyms distributed along the Belice Valley and in the Trapani area.…”

“…Phoenicians were capable oenologists who introduced viticulture and wine-making skills in their Mediterranean colonies, such as Carthage and pre-imperial Rome sites, as documented in Geoponica (6–8). By assessing the climatic and topographic characteristics of their lands, they were able to select the best varieties of Vitis vinifera L., and therefore obtain wines with particular flavors [ 74 , 92 , 93 ]. Wine consumption has been widely attested at Motya, since the earliest time of the settlement.…”

“…The consumption of fruit, leaves, skin, and bark of a wide range of plant species, probably endemic of the Mediterranean basin (e.g., Lamiaceae and Asteraceae), and milk and dairy products was hypothesized by the detection of several plant secondary metabolites (e.g., terpenic compounds) and lactose/galactose, respectively. In Motya, consumption of milk derivatives is unsupported by archaeological records; however, what is known is that Pheonicians were makers and consumers of milk, cheese, yoghurt, and clarified butter [ 74 ]. At the studied site, bone remains of sheep and goats also suggest that these animals could be bred for meat and secondary products [ 80 ].…”

Explaining Consumer Support for Sustainable Business Practices in the Frontier Market of Lebanon

“…There is a lot to like about a frontier market like Lebanon, such as a Mediterranean climate, a beautiful seaside setting for its capital, and a culture of business and trade that traces its roots to the sea-faring Phoenician civilization of antiquity (Woolmer 2021). However, the patchwork of different religious communities in Lebanon (that characterize all of the Eastern Mediterranean, also called the Levant) found themselves embroiled in a bitter sectarian-based civil war from 1975-1990 that devastated the country (Arsan 2018;Hägerdal 2021).…”