“…According to the prediction of researchers, the energy demand resulting from human social activities is expected to double from the current 14 TW (1 TW = 10 12 W) to 2050, which is equivalent to 10 10 tons of oil. [1] In order to reduce the demand for fossil fuels thus reducing the emissions of CO 2 , [2][3][4] excess nitrate (NO 3 À ) [5][6][7][8] and microplastics, [9,10] many new renewable green and clean energies, such as solar energy, [11] tidal energy, [12] wind energy, [13] geothermal energy, [14] nuclear energy [15] and hydrogen energy [16][17][18] , have received increasing attention. However, these renewable energy resources are intermittent and unstable, which puts forward higher requirement for energy storage and conversion equipment.…”