A systematic review and meta-analysis examining the effect of eating rate on energy intake and hunger

Robinson, Eric; Almíron-Roig, Eva; Rutters, Femke; Graaf, C. de; Forde, Ciarán G.; Smith, Catrin Tudur; Nolan, Sarah J; Jebb, Susan A.

doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.081745

Cited by 285 publications

(291 citation statements)

References 38 publications

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“…While the type and quantity of foods consumed and the associated meal patterns that support sustained positive energy balance are important contributors to early weight gain, limited research has focussed on exploring whether children exhibit patterns of food oral processing, or "eating microstructure" patterns [2], that support increased energy intake within a meal. Previous research has shown that faster eating rates support increased energy intake in adults and a meta-analysis of 22 ad libitum feeding trials demonstrated that adults who eat at a faster rate consume more energy [3]. Similar findings have been reported in studies conducted with children [4][5][6][7][8][9].…”

Section: Introductionsupporting

confidence: 77%

A description of an ‘obesogenic’ eating style that promotes higher energy intake and is associated with greater adiposity in 4.5 year-old children: Results from the GUSTO cohort

Fogel

Goh

Fries

et al. 2017

Physiology & Behavior

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Recent findings confirm that faster eating rates support higher energy intakes within a meal and are associated with increased body weight and adiposity in children. The current study sought to * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: Ciaran Gerard Forde; Centre for Translational Medicine, 14 Medical Drive #07-02, MD 6 Building, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Singapore 117599; Tel: +65 64070104; ciaran_forde@sics.astar.edu.sg. Clinical Trial Registry Number: NCT01174875; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ Authors' Contributions: This study was conceived and designed by CGF, AF, MFFC and LRF. Clinical analyses were performed by SS, SV, AF, ATG, and CGF and data analysis and interpretation were carried out by AF and CGF. AF and CGF prepared the draft manuscript and all authors reviewed and approved the final draft. This study was given ethical approval by ethical review boards of the KK Women's and Children's Hospital and National University Hospital in Singapore.Author disclosures: Keith Godfrey, Lee Yung-Seng and Yap Seng Chong have received reimbursement for speaking at conferences sponsored by companies selling nutritional products. They are part of an academic consortium that has received research funding from Abbott Nutrition, Nestec and Danone. Lisa Fries is an employee of Nestec SA, working at the Nestlé Research Center. The other authors have no financial or personal conflict of interests. Europe PMC Funders GroupAuthor Manuscript Physiol Behav. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 January 01. Europe PMC Funders Author ManuscriptsEurope PMC Funders Author Manuscripts identify the eating behaviours that underpin faster eating rates and energy intake in children, and to investigate their variations by weight status and other individual differences. Children (N=386) from the Growing Up in Singapore towards Healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) cohort took part in a video-recorded ad libitum lunch at 4.5 years of age to measure acute energy intake. Videos were coded for three eating behaviours (bites, chews and swallows) to derive a measure of eating rate (g/min) and measures of eating microstructure: eating rate (g/min), total oral exposure (minutes), average bite size (g/bite), chews per gram, oral exposure per bite (seconds), total bites and proportion of active to total mealtime. Children's BMIs were calculated and a subset of children underwent MRI scanning to establish abdominal adiposity. Children were grouped into faster and slower eaters, and into healthy and overweight groups to compare their eating behaviours. Results demonstrate that faster eating rates were correlated with larger average bite size (r=0.55, p<0.001), fewer chews per gram (r=-0.71, p<0.001) and shorter oral exposure time per bite (r=-0.25, p<0.001), and with higher energy intakes (r=0.61, p<0.001). Children with overweight and higher adiposity had faster eating rates (p<0.01) and higher energy intakes (p<0.01), driven by larger bite sizes (p<0.05). Eating behaviours varied by sex, ethnicity and early feeding regimes, partial...

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Section: Introductionsupporting

confidence: 77%

A description of an ‘obesogenic’ eating style that promotes higher energy intake and is associated with greater adiposity in 4.5 year-old children: Results from the GUSTO cohort

Fogel

Goh

Fries

et al. 2017

Physiology & Behavior

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“…127 Intakes throughout the rest of the day also were not different between eating speed conditions. Given that high heterogeneity between studies has been reported 126 and that no studies have assessed long-term Table 3.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…A meta-analysis on this topic has reported a small to medium effect of eating rate on energy intakes at a meal, with lower intakes when eating speed is slow. 126 The difference in energy intakes was proportional to the difference in eating speed. However, there was no effect of eating rate on hunger after the meal and no difference in hunger ratings between meals of fixed content eaten at different speeds.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Meal Timing and Frequency: Implications for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

St‐Onge¹,

Ard²,

Baskin³

et al. 2017

Circulation

569

474

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Eating patterns are increasingly varied. Typical breakfast, lunch, and dinner meals are difficult to distinguish because skipping meals and snacking have become more prevalent. Such eating styles can have various effects on cardiometabolic health markers, namely obesity, lipid profile, insulin resistance, and blood pressure. In this statement, we review the cardiometabolic health effects of specific eating patterns: skipping breakfast, intermittent fasting, meal frequency (number of daily eating occasions), and timing of eating occasions. Furthermore, we propose definitions for meals, snacks, and eating occasions for use in research. Finally, data suggest that irregular eating patterns appear less favorable for achieving a healthy cardiometabolic profile. Intentional eating with mindful attention to the timing and frequency of eating occasions could lead to healthier lifestyle and cardiometabolic risk factor management.T he patterns of meal and snack eating behavior in American adults have changed over the past 40 years. Based on NHANES (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) data from 1971 to 1974 to 2009 to 2010 (n=62 298), women 20 to 74 years of age reported a decrease in 24-hour meal-derived total energy intake (TEI) from 82% in the 1970s to 77% in 2009 to 2010 and an increase in the proportion of TEI consumed from snacks from 18% to 23%.1 Similar trends were reported among men. The proportion of men and women who reported consuming all 3 standard meals declined over this period (from 73% to 59% in men; from 75% to 63% in women), 1 reflecting changes in eating patterns rather than changes in eating frequency. Indeed, the traditional breakfast-lunch-dinner pattern was not observed in a population of healthy, non-shift-working adults. 2 In that study, the number of eating occasions, defined as consumption of any food or beverage providing at least 5 kcal, was ≈4.2 times a day in the lowest decile and 10.5 times a day for the top decile. There were only 5 hours during the 24-hour day when <1% of all eating occasions occurred: between 1 and 6 am. This study clearly demonstrated that adults in the United States eat around the clock. Because feeding and fasting entrain clock genes, which regulate all aspects of metabolism, meal timing can have serious implications for the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD), type 2 diabetes mellitus, and obesity. 3,4 The circadian rhythms of the body are controlled by the central clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus but also by clocks of peripheral organs. Although the master clock is strongly entrained by light, clocks of peripheral organs are additionally responsive to food supply, and temporal restriction of food can reset clock gene rhythms. In mice, food given in the normal sleeping period can uncouple peripheral clocks from the master clock. 5 In fact, time-restricted feeding CLINICAL STATEMENTS AND GUIDELINESin mice alters the robustness and coherence of rhythmic gene transcripts, 6 which may be relevant for cardiom...

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“…Eating slowly was associated with lower energy intake and there was no significant relationship between eating speed and hunger at the end of the meal or up to 3.5 hours later [1] . Eating fast is positively associated with excess body weight [2] .…”

Section: Eating Speed and Obesitymentioning

confidence: 78%

Effect of eating speed on obesity and diabetes mellitus

Aoki¹

2018

J Adv Nutr Hum Metab

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Diet therapy is important for treating obese subjects and patients with type 2 diabetes to prevent complications. Regarding eating speed and obesity, several studies suggest that eating fast increases the body weight and eating slowly decreases the energy intake. Recently, we evaluated the effects of ingestion of enteral formula (liquid meal) slowly or fast on glucose metabolism in 10 Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes. Postprandial levels of glucose, insulin, and gastrointestinal hormones such as active glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), total glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), total peptide YY (PYY), and active ghrelin did not change significantly after fast or slow ingestion of enteral formula. We hypothesize that eating slowly prevents the excess energy intake and body weight gain over a long observation period and improves insulin resistance and glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Keywords: Eating rate; obesity; gastrointestinal hormone; type 2 diabetes To cite this article: Kazutaka Aoki, et al. Effect of eating speed on obesity and diabetes mellitus.

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A systematic review and meta-analysis examining the effect of eating rate on energy intake and hunger

Abstract: Evidence to date supports the notion that eating rate affects energy intake. Research is needed to identify effective interventions to reduce eating rate that can be adopted in everyday life to help limit excess consumption.

Cited by 285 publications

References 38 publications

A description of an ‘obesogenic’ eating style that promotes higher energy intake and is associated with greater adiposity in 4.5 year-old children: Results from the GUSTO cohort

A description of an ‘obesogenic’ eating style that promotes higher energy intake and is associated with greater adiposity in 4.5 year-old children: Results from the GUSTO cohort

Meal Timing and Frequency: Implications for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

Effect of eating speed on obesity and diabetes mellitus

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