“…The applications of 3D printed cardiac models are vast in scope and include, but are not limited to: (i) assisting in diagnostics, (ii) optimizing therapeutic outputs, (iii) testing novel devices, (iv) assessing patient-specific suitability for treatments, (v) providing visualized insight for surgical procedures, (vi) allowing for performance of parametric studies on hydrodynamics, and (vii) validating computational simulations. Additionally, 3D printed cardiac models present a robust didactic and communication medium for students, patients, and the greater medical public [21,23,74]. So far, considering the requisite precision, formability, and stability of 3D printed models, current strategies for cardiovascular 3D printing in clinical practices have relied on robust, non-living manufacturing technologies.…”