A systematic review of demographic and background factors associated with the development of children’s aquatic competence

Abstract

Background Globally, drowning is a leading cause of unintentional injury and death among children. Teaching aquatic competencies (swimming skills and water safety knowledge) to children has been proposed as a prevention strategy. In Australia, however, many children are not meeting standard aquatic competency benchmarks. Exploration of the connection between demographic and background factors and aquatic competencies could provide insight into why differences in acquisition of aquatic knowledge and skills occur. Main body A systematic literature review guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses was performed to identify studies that reported on the association between demographic and background factors and aquatic competencies. Nine databases were searched for English language peer-reviewed studies published since 2000. Fourteen studies fulfilled all inclusion criteria. Studies were quasi-experimental or cross-sectional in design, which is considered quality level III-2 or IV, respectively, on the National Health and Medical Research Council Evidence Hierarchy. Study quality was moderate, and risk of bias was high. While aquatic competencies can be taught, this review found that factors including age, gender, geographic residence, medical conditions/disabilities, socioeconomic status, and swimming frequency were significantly associated with the demonstration and/or acquisition of aquatic competencies. Conclusion This review provides insight into demographic and background factors that are significantly associated with the development of aquatic competence. Whilst further investigation is required to increase the evidence base, these findings may assist in tailoring swimming and water safety programs to accommodate those at-risk of not achieving age-appropriate aquatic competencies.

Sex‐based differences in track running distances of 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1500m in the 8 and under and 9–10‐year‐old age groups

“…In comparison to running, the smaller to nonexistent prepubertal sex-based differences in swimming may be partially explained by noting that swimming is a learned skill that requires access to facilities and coaching to a much greater extent than does the innate skill of running (Olaisen et al, 2018). Furthermore, Duke et al (2023) observed that in addition to sex, school type was a major factor influencing swimming skills since some schools, particularly smaller or less affluent schools, lack aquatic facilities. These authors also observed that frequency of participation in aquatic activity and prior negative aquatic experiences also contributed to the smaller prepubertal sex-based differences in swimming performance than other sports.…”

“…Furthermore, Duke et al. (2023) observed that in addition to sex, school type was a major factor influencing swimming skills since some schools, particularly smaller or less affluent schools, lack aquatic facilities. These authors also observed that frequency of participation in aquatic activity and prior negative aquatic experiences also contributed to the smaller prepubertal sex‐based differences in swimming performance than other sports.…”